The social learning theory as proposed by Bandura, (1973) is one of the main theories which highlighted the relationship between media violence and aggression. Bandura theory incorporates the concept of modeling and observational learning which are key underlying processes with regards to media violence and aggressive behavior (Kenrick, Neuberg, & Cialdini, 2010). The social learning theory is associated with both the short and long term effects of media violence on aggressive behavior and is supported by Huesmann and Taylor, (2006), who postulated that media violence has both short-term and long-term effects which include observational learning and mimicry among others. Anderson, et al., (2003) further support the suggestion and state that individuals must be mindful when dealing with the theories related to media violence and aggression since it is important to distinguish between the short-term effects and the long-term effects. Huesmann and Taylor, (2006) identify the short-term effects of media violence are as that of the priming processes, excitement processes and the immediate imitation of specific behaviors, and the long-term effects as mainly due to more lasting observation learning of cognition and behavior and desensitization of emotional processes.
One of the underlying processes that explain the effects of media violence and increase aggression is that of priming. Huesmann, (2007) defines priming as ‘an act through which spreading activation in the brain’s neural network form the locus representing an external observed stimulus excites another brain node representing a cognition, emotion, or behavior (p. 2).’ Simply put, one can explain priming as the linkage between cognitive thoughts and an external stimulus. For example, the viewing of a gun (external stimulus) can lead to aggressive thought (cognitive thought). This claim is support by Berkowitz, (1974) and Carlson, Marcus-Newhall and Miller, (1990) who state that having a weapon in a room where individuals can view it, increases the likelihood of increase aggression in persons (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2003). Berkowitz conducted a study on the ‘weapon effects’ which supports the claim that individual’s behavior are influenced by cues. In the study, participants were angered by electric stock and later asked to administer electric shock to the confederate. Participates who was more angered, and who was place in a room with a shotgun and a revolver, administered more aggressive shock then the control group (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2003).
Having a weapon is not the only object that can prime an aggressive behavior. For example, when someone is exposed to blacks involved in gang fighting on the television if he or she is exposed to a black person in a lonely neighborhood that person schema or script may be primed so that he or she may react with increase aggression. The case of Trayvon Martin and George Zimmerman in February 26th 2012 whereby Zimmerman killed Trayvon a black teenager in a gated community can be deemed as an example of priming. Therefore, this means that encountering violence on media can activate an aggressive response in an individual without him or her knowing about it due to a develop schema which was acquired because of viewing violent media (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2003). Huesmann, (2007) supports this belief when he states that an external stimulus can be something inherently neutral like a particular ethnic group (e.g., African-American) that has become linked in the past to certain beliefs or behaviors (aggression).
Another process proposed to account for the short-term effect of media violence on aggression is that of the arousal (excitation –transfer) theory. This theory was developed by Zillmann, (1971) and states that individuals may react with increased aggression in a given situation because of residual arousal from a previous situation (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2003). Zillmann theory is linked to the frustration- aggression theory in that Zillmann, (1994) believes that an internal arousal state can enhance aggressive activity including the arousal generated by watching violence film (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2003). For example, according to the excitation-transfer theory if an individual has recently viewed a movie depicting violence and upon leaving the cinema he or she is approached by villain intent on robbery, that person may be more inclined to react with aggressive behavior toward the assailant, than someone who was not exposed to media violence. This tendency to react with increased aggression is what Zillmann, (1994) attributes to the fact that the emotional state encountered by viewing the violence in the movie (increased heart rate, sweaty palms and elevated blood pressure) had resulted in an enhanced aggressive response in another given situation (Kenrick, Neuberg, & Cialdini, 2010). Additionally, not only movies depict violence but new reports are also filled incidents of violent killing. For example, in Grenada the month of July 2012 there were three reported chopping instances (Editor, 2012). In each case the media presented wide coverage of the perpetrators which could account for others getting involved in the same violent activity. Huesmann and Taylor, (2006) support this claim and states that not all violence occur in fictional form. The Marilyn Monroe effect is one study which showed 2.5% increase in suicide rates within the populace, as a result of news report of suicide (Huesmann & Taylor, 2006).
The last short-term process as posit by Anderson et al., (2003) that contributes to increase in aggressive behavior is observation learning and imitation (social learning theory). Observation learning according to Slavin, (2006) is defined as ‘learning by observation and imitation of others (p.154).’ After viewing media depicting violence, young children imitated the violent behavior of the actors thus contributing to increased aggression in children. Modeling and imitation are processes most likely to occur in young children because psychologist believes that young children are more likely to imitate behaviors they view as rewarding and that learning occurs without intention and awareness (Anderson, et al., 2003). The process involved in this theory is that the model may be attractive to the child and is also rewarded for the violent behavior; therefore, the child may model or mimic the behavior. For example, in the movie ‘Rambo’ the main character goes through the movie stabbing, shooting and fighting with the persons who did him injustice and he is rewarded at the end for his action. Children viewing such behavior would model the behavior because they like the character and also because the actor got a reward for depicting violent behaviors. Therefore the likelihood of children viewing and later modeling the violent behavior depicted by the fictional character on television is greatly increased. According to Comstock and Paik, (1991) this is because the media has presented the aggressive behavior as an efficient instrument to achieve ones goals and to remain unpunished, a condition they refer to as efficacy. (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2003).
Anderson et al., (2003) however, have stated that encountering violence media (such as the movie goer mentioned earlier or children who play violent video games) is not the only factors that contribute to aggressive behavior by individuals. They believe that aggressive behavior is dependent on both violent act portrayed in the movie or depicted in the game and to some extent personal characteristics. This is because someone else who has viewed the same violent movie may not respond with increase aggressive. Anderson et al., (2003) reported that individuals who are characteristically more prone to aggression than their peers are more likely to be affected in a negative way to media violence. Anderson and Dill, (2000) give the example of the Columbine High School shooting in 1999 to highlight their point on the role play by individuals characteristics when it relates to media violence. Two students after repeatedly playing the game ‘doom’ went on a killing rampage through their school depicting the same violence in real life. However, other students who played the same game did not act in the same manner. In this instance, it can be said that Eric Harris and Dalton Klebold had a high threshold for aggressive behavior hence their reaction were more aggressive to the attacker (Anderson, et al., 2003). According to Freedman, (2002) there are other factors (besides the processes of priming, arousal and mimicry) that can be responsible for increase aggression in children. One such factor that Freedman, (2002) posits is that of family structure which he claims can account for increase aggression in children and not the media. Furthermore, Freedman, (2002) claims that divorce and single parent household where there is decreased level of monitoring of children are situations in which increase aggression is most prominence.
One of the long-term underlying processes that can be used to explain media violence and increase aggression is that of more lasting observation learning of cognition and behavior. Reinforcement is a major component which determines whether the behavior is continued or not. Anderson et al., (2003) suggests that when imitating a behavior, the reinforcements a person receives are largely responsible for whether the behavior persists. For example, if a child is exposed to violent behaviors of hero, in movies such as the ‘Matrix’ and ‘Dirty Harry’, they may vicariously experience the rewards of the hero and be tempted to portray the violent behavior (Carnagey, Anderson, & Bartholomew, 2007). If the social environment rewards the violent behavior exhibited, the individual would continue to imitate the violent or aggressive behavior over a long period of time (long term effect).
Another process according to Huesmann and Taylor, (2006) that can account for the effect of media violence and increase aggressive behavior is that of desensitization of emotional. This process causes individuals to experience less sensitivity to violence and consideration for the consequences of aggressive behavior because of extended exposure to violence portrayed on all forms of media (Baron, Branscombe, & Byrne, 2009). According to Anderson, et al.,(2003) this process occurs ‘when people who watch a lot of media violence no longer response with as much unpleasant physiological arousal as they did initially (p 45).’ For example, if someone is not familiar with the portrayal of violent behavior, he or she will have an unpleasant physiological reaction which will inhitbit violent thoughts, emotion and behavior. However, after repeated exposure to violent media the unpleasant physiological response changes thus, resulting in heighten likelihood of aggressive behavior.
Media violence is not the only factor which contributes to increased aggression. As the literature shows situational, cognitive and personal characteristics can all account for individuals aggressive behavior; however, the ways in which one can counteract the effects of media violence varies from education to intervention strategies. The most frequently promoted means of reducing media violence is that of media literacy (Anderson, et al., 2003). Media literacy can be defined as the ability to understand how mass media works, produce meaning, are organised and how to use them wisely. If individuals are given the opportunity to develop media literacy, this understanding can be used to critcally analyze, interprete and evaluate the messages protrayed by the mass media (Lomonaco, Tia, & Ottaviano, 2010). In doing so, individuals would more likely not imitate or model aggressive behaviours depicted by the media. However, media literacy alone can not guarantee a reduction in aggressive behavior. Reseachers Robinson, Wilde, Navracruz, Haydel and Vardy (2001) found that the media literacy done in conjuction with parental involvement and ‘turn off tv’ initiative result in significant effects in verbal aggression but no significant effect in observed behavior (Anderson, et al., 2003). However, with consistency, increase vigilance and a combination of literarcy with other strategies, media literacy can do its part in curbing or reducing media effect on aggressive behavior.
Another strategy that can be used to minimize the effects of media violence is that parents can limit exposure to potentially harmful music, movies and video games or simply provide guidance or monitor activities as it relates to the viewing of media violence (Lomonaco, Tia, & Ottaviano, 2010). For example, when voilence is shown on screen parents should have discussions with children in which they inform them that the picture is fictional and that in real life violence behaviour is not tolerated. In this way, the children will be less inclined to model or imitate the violence behavior observed. This view is supported by researchers such as Anderson et al., (2003) who highlighted that a study conducted concluded that parents who spoke negatively about voilent media content and who restricted the exposure of their children to such content, reported that they children was less prone to aggressive behaviors.
Finally, media violence can be regulated or the rating of violent films could be encouraged (Anderson, et al., 2003). This is a technological approach to minimizing the exposure to media violence. The Telecommunication Act of 1996 makes it mandatory for manufacturers to include V-chips in all new television. The Act also allows for a rating system to be adapted. The V-chip and rating system are means by which parents can block inappropriate shows or content from being viewed by children. Limiting the exposure to violent movie content is thought to be one strategy that can decrease the effects of media violence (Lomonaco, Tia, & Ottaviano, 2010). However, even though the television are equipt with the technology individuals have not be vigilant in their use of the device and furthermore, movie industry has been slow to implement the rating system because of economic factors. The industry however, has put in place other measures such as Weemote and Tv guides which allows some level of control by parents.
The research on media violence and aggressive behavior is extensive. The literature suggests that there are both short and long term effect of media violence. The social learning theory is the main process by which individuals learn violent and aggressive behavior because of the rewards given to the hero in movies and the lack of punishment for wrong doing. Other processes include priming, arousal/excitement and desensitization. Moderator effects such as individual characteristics and family structure are among the other factors which determines the extent to which individuals engage in violent behavior. The research on strategies for minimizing the effect of media violence is not as many as the effects however, media literacy, parental monitoring and guidance and techonological innovation such as V-chips in televisions are put forward by researchers to curb the efffects of media violence.
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