Virgin Blue’s strategy is to position itself as the lowest cost producer of air travel services in Australia. Virgin Blue’s strategy is to offer a low price on all its fares, together with quality service, in order to attract an increasing number of passengers to air travel. Virgin Blue’s strategy can be distinguished from the strategic approaches adopted by Qantas, Ansett and Impulse.
At a recent seminar in Sydney, David Huttner – head of commercial at Virgin Blue – gave a speech to the AFR Boss Club on the subject of breaking some of the assumptions about what an airline should be, and what Virgin Blue (or any airline) should be doing to serve the Australian traveling public. On the specific subject of competition he mentioned that ‘We (Virgin Blue) never try to be better than our competitors, we (Virgin Blue) never try to even look at our competitors too much…We (Virgin Blue) are always trying to make it better, not just trying to look like the other guys. If we (Virgin Blue) end up like the other guys, someone else will come in just like we (Virgin Blue) did, and start another airline, and we’d (Virgin Blue) be losing our customers.’
On each of the routes on which it operates, the Virgin Blue standard fare is substantially below the standard Qantas and Ansett fares.
Virgin Blue’s strategy is to price air travel at a level which is readily affordable for most people. Virgin Blue has sought to price its fares at levels which will attract travelers who may otherwise have traveled by bus, train or private car, and to expand the overall demand for air travel by making it more affordable for those who otherwise could not afford to fly.
As Virgin Blue does not offer and of the ‘frills’ service offered by the other airlines to capture the premium price, high profit business, it is essential that all its non-essential operations are low cost to maintain Virgin Blue’s competitive pricing position.
Situational Influences
Behaviour always occurs within the context of some situation. In the study of consumer behaviour, Belk (1974) defined situational influences as those arising from factors that are particular to a specific time and place and that are relatively independent of consumer and product characteristics. Examples include physical surroundings (décor, music, and crowding); social surroundings (other people who may be present); task definition (reason or purpose for engaging in the decision); temporal effects (time of day or amount of time available); antecedent states (the customer’s mood or amount of cash on hand).
Following are the three of the many situational influences, which may manipulate the purchasing patterns or behaviours of airline service purchases.
- Physical Surroundings
Evidence indicates that customers are more satisfied with services acquired in an organised, professional appearing environment than with those acquired in a disorganised environment.
The Australian domestic ‘full service’ airline passengers are accustomed to a particular design and operation of an airport terminal. Virgin Blue rejected the existing terminal facilities previously used by Ansett, and adopted a slightly modified ‘express’ terminal facility which is sufficient to handle its expected passenger numbers, whilst meeting the needs of its ‘low-cost’ objectives.
The express terminal contains the following amenities:
- A basic passenger arrival / departure lounge
- Basic access to refreshments
- Check-in counters
- Roaming ticket agents with the ability to check-in passengers within a 1.5km radius of the airport check-in counters. These wireless portable networks have the ability to tag bags and print boarding passes.
- A covered walkway from the check-in counters out onto the apron for passengers to embark and disembark by way of a short walk.
All of the above factors are slightly different to the expectations of a ‘normal’ terminal facility for the experienced flyer that are accustomed to certain terminal procedures. This type of undersized high paced environment may be seen as chaotic, disordered and confusing. On the other hand, for the first-time flyers, this express terminal may be seen initially as adequate, as these passengers are unaware of the ‘normal’ terminal procedures.
However, with high volumes of traffic expected, the physical situation of an over-crowded, disorganised terminal may pose negative impacts on passengers, thereby reducing their satisfaction, confidence and experience with Virgin Blue, thus diminishing the chance of repeat customers.
Additionally, Virgin Blue’s unique quality driven service is advertised in their television commercials with the catch phrase ‘If only you got Virgin Blue service everywhere’. Thus, for passengers who thrive on enjoyable, entertaining, innovative, on-time services, Virgin Blue’s advertising may be another influential element in persuading customers to choose Virgin Blue.
- Social Surroundings
Social influence is a significant force acting on behaviour, since individuals tend to comply with group expectations, particularly when their behaviour is visible.
Virgin Blue, being a ‘low-cost’ airline, is viewed by the general public as a cheap flying alternative to Qantas.
Situational Influences (continued…)
Since business travellers seek status and authority, flying business-class domestically with Qantas for example, may gain these individuals a certain measure of respect or prestige by their colleagues. However, should this individual choose to fly Virgin Blue, they may not feel that added respect or prestige status that they are accustomed to. Additionally, unlike Virgin Blue, Qantas offers their business class travelers extra services such as frequent flyer programs and VIP club entry which entices these individuals to become loyal to their brand as they will receive these added extras when choosing to fly Qantas.
Conversely, individuals who have previously not been able to afford to fly to their chosen destinations may gain a certain degree of stature and eminence from peers when arriving via plane (ie Virgin Blue).
Additionally, consumers who are traveling with children, for example, may be influenced into utilizing Virgin Blue because of the image it has adopted. Virgin Blue is dedicated to portraying a youthful brand image. The company is committed to providing a friendly, upbeat, enthusiastic and unique flying experience to each of its customers. Whether onboard a Virgin Blue flight or waiting in the express terminal, Virgin Blue staff seem keen to show their unique ‘Virgin Flair’ in different ways. From face painting children, to onboard games, ‘airobics’ and the odd song, Virgin Blue staff present a entertaining and yet individual service to their customers, which may be an important influential purchasing element for those passengers who are traveling with children.
- Task Definition
Task definition refers to the reason or purpose for engaging in the purchase decision (ie to purchase an airline ticket).
Following are simple groupings of the main purposes or reasons for which customers undertake travel and use Virgin Blue and its competitors’ products / services.
- Business / Work-related Motives
- Pursuit of private and public sector business, conferences, meetings, exhibitions and short courses.
- Travel away from home for work-related purposes, including airline personnel, truck drivers, service engineers.
- Physical / Physiological Motives
- Participation in indoor sport and active outdoor recreation such as golfing, walking, sailing, skiing.
- Undertaking activities in pursuit of health, fitness, and recuperation.
- Resting / relaxing / generally unwinding from stress of everyday life.
- Finding warmth / sunshine / relaxation on a beach.
- Cultural / Psychological / Personal Education Motives
- Participation in festivals, theatre, music, museums – as spectator, player, or volunteer.
- Participation in personal interests, including courses and activity involving intellectual, craft and other leisure-time pursuits.
- Visiting destinations for the sake of their cultural and or natural heritage (including ecotourism).
- Social / Interpersonal and Ethic Motives
- Enjoying the company and visiting with friends and relatives.
- Traveling for social duty occasions – from weddings to funerals.
- Accompanying partners traveling for their own reasons, such as business or social duty.
- Visiting the place of one’s birth and exploring historical roots.
Situational Influences (continued…)
- Entertainment / Amusement / Pleasure / Pastime Motives
- Watching sport / other spectator events.
- Visiting theme parks / amusement parks
- Undertaking non-routine leisure shopping.
- Participation in pilgrimages.
- Undertaking retreats for meditation and study.
- Temporal Effects
Temporal effects refer to the time of day or the amount of time available. Since traveling by plane is a faster alternative to traveling by car, bus or train for example, the amount of time that customers have allocated to arrive at their chosen destination will influence the mode of transport they may choose for their journey. For example, if an individual living in Perth must be in Sydney within say, ten hours they are more likely to choose to fly, as it is the fastest (and probably only) option available. Then again, over-booked, delayed or missed flights may pose as a negative temporal effect forcing passengers to choose alternative means of transport to meet their travel time restriction.
Additionally, the actual time the customer purchases or books their travel plans can influence their decision to fly. For example, EasyJet – a low-cost airline in Europe – encourage early reservations by offering their cheapest fares to customers who book well in advance. As the time of the flight approaches the cost rises. Many airlines operate on the reverse principle and reduce their price as the date of service approaches.
Furthermore, the time of day or year with which travelers choose to travel can alter their choice to fly. Airline schedules can have a large influence on customers’ choice to fly. If the schedule does not fit into their travel plans they may choose an alternative means of transport. Additionally, during high peak travel seasons such as Christmas, Easter or New Years Eve, customers may be influenced to travel in order to spend these holidays with family or friends.
- Antecedent States
Antecedent states are momentary moods (such as anxiety, pleasantness etc) or momentary conditions (such as fatigue, illness) of the individual that are not lasting or relatively enduring characteristics.
Customers’ momentary moods can certainly impact the airline industry. The most recent example may be the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in New York. Many individuals have since lost confidence in flying to their chosen destinations due to anxiety and fear for safety.
Journeys by public transport have to be paid for not only in money terms but also in the stress and strain of heavily congested access routes, queuing in crowded terminals, delays, missed connections, harassed staff and risk to personal safety. With private transport, the strain of driving along congested trunk routes and not finding a convenient parking space at the destination has removed most of what was once the glamour of the open road. Thus, some travellers may be influenced to travel via plane to alleviate the misery of private transport. Whilst others may be influenced to travel via car, bus or train to alleviate the misery of a chaotic unreliable airport.
Consumer Decision Process
When making a purchase, customers can be seen to follow particular patterns of behaviour. This has allowed marketers to break down the decision process that a customer undertakes, and to understand their behaviour more intimately at each of the stages. The main stages given are typically the following:
- Need / Problem Recognition
Consumers’ purchase decision processes are triggered by unsatisfied needs and wants. The problem recognition stage occurs when the buyer senses a difference between his or her actual state and some desired state. In the case of Virgin Blue, is seems likely that their target market are motivated to meet there wants and needs. They are attracted to a destination (situational factor) and in order to meet this want they are prompted to find some means of travel.
Motivations are a dynamic process in buyer behaviour, bridging the gap between a felt need and the decision to act. The main motivations for which customers undertake travel and use Virgin Blues’ and competitors’ services are:
- Business / Work-related Motives
- Pursuit of private and public sector business, conferences, meetings, exhibitions and short courses.
- Travel away from home for work-related purposes, including airline personnel, truck drivers, service engineers.
- Physical / Physiological Motives
- Participation in indoor sport and active outdoor recreation such as golfing, walking, sailing, skiing.
- Undertaking activities in pursuit of health, fitness, and recuperation.
- Resting / relaxing / generally unwinding from stress of everyday life.
- Finding warmth / sunshine / relaxation on a beach.
- Cultural / Psychological / Personal Education Motives
- Participation in festivals, theatre, music, museums – as spectator, player, or volunteer.
- Participation in personal interests, including courses and activity involving intellectual, craft and other leisure-time pursuits.
- Visiting destinations for the sake of their cultural and or natural heritage (including ecotourism).
- Social / Interpersonal and Ethic Motives
- Enjoying the company and visiting with friends and relatives.
- Traveling for social duty occasions – from weddings to funerals.
- Accompanying partners traveling for their own reasons, such as business or social duty.
- Visiting the place of one’s birth and exploring historical roots.
Consumer Decision Process (continued…)
- Entertainment / Amusement / Pleasure / Pastime Motives
- Watching sport / other spectator events.
- Visiting theme parks / amusement parks
- Undertaking non-routine leisure shopping.
- Participation in pilgrimages.
- Undertaking retreats for meditation and study.
It seems reasonable to assume, that few travellers are motivated by the joys of transport to a destination (that is, the idea of commercial air travel), it merely fulfils a need to get from A to B. Having said that, since Virgin Blue are also targeting customers’ who haven’t previously been able to afford air travel before, first-time flyers may be attracted equally to the actual air travel experience as well as the destination. However, after certain amount of flights, this novelty tends to diminish.
Thus, the problem recognition stage for Virgin Blue customers occurs when the buyer senses a difference between his or her actual state (for example, the customers’ physical location – Sydney) and some desired state (for example, the customers’ desired location – Gold Coast).
- Information Search
After recognising a need or want, consumers search for information about the various alternatives available to satisfy it. Consumers can obtain information from any of several sources. These include:
- Memory of past searches, personal experiences, and direct usage or trial of the service.
- Personal sources, such as family, friends, neighbours, and acquaintances.
- Independent sources, such as consumer groups and government departments.
- Marketing sources, such as sales personnel and advertising
- Public sources, such as mass media, consumer-rating organizations
Internal information search is the process of recalling information stored in the memory. This stored information stems largely from previous experience with a product. It is the primary source used by most consumers most of the time. It is used in habitual and limited decision making. However, this type information in long-term memory was initially obtained from external sources.
In contrast, an external information search seeks information from the outside environment. There are two basic types of external information sources:
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A non-marketing-controlled information source is one not associated with marketers promoting a product, and is often a key resource for consumers facing even the smallest of buying decisions.
- A marketing-controlled information source, on the other hand, is biased towards a specific brand because it originates from marketers promoting that brand. Marketing-controlled information sources include mass-media advertising (radio, newspaper, television and magazine advertising), sales promotion (contests, displays, premiums and so forth), salespeople, product labels and packaging.
Because services, more than product’s, are associated with greater perceived risk, the individual involved is likely to use more information sources in the attempt to better cope with the risk, which in turn is influenced by knowledge about the service being considered, prior experience with the type of purchase, the consumer’s level of confidence in their decision-making ability and the level of interest in the service. Generally, the greater the perceived risk of the purchase, the greater the search by the consumer for alternative brands (that is, as more information is obtained, the consumer’s awareness and knowledge of the available brands and features increases).
Consumer Decision Process (continued…)
During information search, the first-time flyer will use a considerable array of information sources when searching for travel options available to get from A to B, because it is a decision process that they do not make regularly. These consumers usually exposed to more advertising information from marketing sources, which perform an informing function; than from personal or public sources which serve as an evaluating and legitimizing function.
Thus, first-time flyers will rely more heavily on external information sources. These customers will depend on both marketing-controlled and non-marketing-controlled information sources. This may include observed advertising or use of telephones to contact travel agents or transportation call centers directly to learn what transport options are available. Information which may be requested includes:
- Service availability and convenience – reflecting routes offered, schedules and capacity.
- Cost in comparison with competitors on the same routes.
- The design and performance of the vehicle – reflecting comfort and speed.
- Comfort, seating, ambience and any service offered during the journey.
- Passenger handling at terminals and carparks.
- Convenience of booking and ticketing arrangements.
- Contact with staff and their roles in contact with customers.
- Image and positioning of each operator.
It is likely that first-time flyers would also seek the opinions of friends and family in deciding whether to take a plane and in selecting a particular airline. In doing so, they are consistent with the general proposition that consumers choose more personal sources for services than for goods because service consumption is highly personal and must be experienced and understood.
During information search, the experienced flyer, on the other hand, will use a narrower array of information sources when searching for travel options available to get from A to B, because it is a decision process that they have experience in (make regularly) and they are confident in their ability to evaluate the options available. These consumers are also exposed to information by marketing sources however, they are generally loyal to a specific brand and are only interested in the variance of prices or destinations.
Thus, experienced flyers will rely more heavily on internal information such as, their memory of previous searches and experiences of/with a particular transportation company. By searching their memory, they can probably remember whether a specific company provided an on-time service and was friendly and helpful. These customers may also possess a certain degree of brand loyalty and as a result influence their friends and family when recommending a particular service.
Additionally, both types of travelers may be inclined to use the Internet to search for travel needs. Some websites may include: , , and ; as well as the domestic public transportation websites including: airlines – , ; train – ; bus – etc. These types of online travel sites provide customers with a ‘one-stop-travel shop’. They are designed to help with travel needs from planning the perfect itenary to booking flights, accommodation, car hire, special tours and travel insurance. Customers are also able to contact dedicated leisure and corporate consultants for further help and advise.
- Evaluation of Alternatives
In this stage, the consumer compares the available options that are potentially capable of solving the problem that initiated the decision process. During this comparison process, consumers form beliefs, attitudes, and intensions about the alternatives that are under consideration.
The first-time flyer will probably consider various forms of transport available to get from destination A to B. Thus, before arriving at the decision to fly, their alternative methods of transport may include:
Consumer Decision Process (continued…)
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Rail: Scheduled rail services (excluding commuter trains) mostly operate on short-haul routes for journeys of up to around four – eight hours’ duration. They generally serve all purposes of travel. Product differentiation and segmentation by class of travel is reinforced through a wide range of promotional fares to combat seasonality and draw in traffic at less popular times and days of the week.
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Bus / Coach: Bus services (excluding local and commuter buses) divide into scheduled express services providing inter-city competition for rail for non-business users, coach tours and excursions, and private hire. Buses play a significant role in the budget price end of the tour market and exertions for segments such as schools and the over 60s. Buses also link places that rail may not serve and perform key services such as transfers. Private hire for groups, clubs and associations is an important part of modern tourism and may increase as traffic congestion difficulties impede the use of private transport.
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Private Transport: At the start of the twenty-first century, cars are the dominant form of transport for most domestic tourism, leisure day visits and recreational purposes. The sheer convenience, flexibility, relevance to modern lifestyles and what often appears to be the low marginal cost of using a car, especially for two or more people, provides private transport with massive competitive advantages. Since the 1990s, however, internationally growing environmental concerns with traffic congestion at destinations, pollution and global warming are likely to tilt the currently favorable regulatory framework against cars.
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Airlines: First-time flyers have two options within Australian domestic air travel: Qantas and Virgin Blue. Qantas operates strongly branded scheduled domestic services around Australia carrying business, leisure and holiday travelers. Product differentiation is achieved by separate cabin for business and economy class and it extends to check-in and lounge facilities at terminals. Segmentation is reflected in an extensive range of promotional fares, especially for economy class, with consolidated fares widely available through specialist agencies and the Internet. In contrast, Virgin Blue is a budget or ‘no-frills’ airline providing short/medium inter-city services within Australia, mostly using secondary rather than primary (high-cost) airport. It provides no major ‘additional’ services, and competes aggressively on price for all purposes of travel.
Journeys by public transport have to be paid for not only in money terms but also in the stress and strain of heavily congested access routes, queuing in crowded terminals, delays, missed connections, harassed staff and risk to personal safety. With private transport, the strain of driving along congested trunk routes and not finding a convenient parking space at the destination has removed most of what was once the glamour of the open road.
In contrast, the experienced flyer will probably consider only two options available to get from destination A to B, since it is a decision process that they have experience in. Thus, the two options evaluated by the experienced flyer would be the choice between the two airlines mentioned above.
In conclusion, for both types of potential flyers, the major factors affecting the choice of a flight as opposed to other means of travel are:
- the price
- the destinations the carrier goes to
- the reliability of the carrier
- the particular services (or added value) offered
- the time it takes to get to the chosen destination
Consumer Decision Process (continued…)
- Purchase Decision
Following the evaluation of alternatives, consumers then decide which service to buy, where to buy it and how to pay for it, or they might decide not to buy a product at all.
Generally speaking, the majority of airline tickets sold are planned purchases. Thus, assuming that the first-time and experienced flyers have chosen to travel by plane, there choice of brand and/or outlet selection will vary.
For the first-time flyer, it is reasonable to assume that they will choose the outlet first, for example, a travel agent because it is a decision process that they do not make regularly and are not aware of the process of purchase. In contrast, for the experienced flyer, it is reasonable to assume that they will choose the brand first, for example the airline, because they will most likely have varying degrees of brand loyalty.
However, two factors can come between the purchase intension and the purchase decision. The first factor is the attitudes of significant others. If the buyer’s partner feels strongly that he or she should buy the lowest-priced airline ticket regardless of the airline, then the chances of buying a more expensive ticket in order to fly on a particular airline will be reduced.
The second factor is unexpected situational factors. The consumer may form a purchase intension based on factors such as expected income, expected price and expected service benefits. However, unexpected events may change the purchase intention. A person may lose their job, some other purchase may become more urgent, a friend may report being disappointed in the airline the buyer has expressed a preference for, or a competitor may drop its price. Thus, preferences and even purchase intentions do not always result in actual purchase choice.
Having said that, holding these two factors constant, the first-time flyer will more than likely select Virgin Blue over Qantas because of the affordable prices they offer. The selection between Qantas and Virgin Blue for the experienced flyer will depend upon past experiences, their price sensitivity and the degree of brand loyalty to a particular carrier.
On the other hand, holding all things constant, business-class passengers will more than likely chose Qantas because of the added benefits they receive, such as business lounges, ‘free’ drinks, express check-ins, larger reclining seats and fine food. Because of the price wars between Qantas and Virgin Blue, economy class passengers will have a tough choice between the two carriers, but will more than likely chose Qantas as well because of the ‘free’ food onboard.
- Post-Purchase Behaviour
After purchasing the service, the consumer will be satisfied or dissatisfied and will engage in postpurchase behaviour.
If the experience is highly satisfactory, the probability of repeat purchase will be high, the likelihood of good ‘word of mouth’ will be high, and the customer will have ‘learned’ that satisfaction is associated with that service. For example, a good experience with an airline, with a punctual flight and friendly service, is highly likely to influence future choices. Such an experience will lead naturally to good feelings and the prospects of establishing some form of continuing relationship with that customer are high.
In contrast, if the experience is highly unsatisfactory, the opposite will occur and, depending on the importance of the purchase, the consumer may never buy that experience again. For example, a long delay, surly service or an overbooked flight can create tensions and frustrations that are observable on any day or night at any large airport. Worse by far for marketing managers, such consumers will influence their circle of friends with negative attitudes to the brand.
Consumer Decision Process (continued…)
In other words, it is not good enough to simply secure the sale. Good marketing aims to achieve subsequent sales through harnessing product / service satisfaction as the most powerful means of influencing buyer behaviour. It achieves this through the learning process that moulds purchasing attitudes and conditions an individual’s perceptions.
CONCLUSION
Complicating any simple classification of the airline ticket purchase process is the fact that within the total market many customers perform more than one role as buyers. The businessman in the executive suite this month may be a vacationer in two weeks’ time using a budget ‘no-frills’ airline; the hang-gliding expert may be a regular business-class traveler or a backpacker seeking the cheapest airfare; or the hamburger eater at lunchtime may be visiting a top restaurant in the evening and so on. Thus, following is a spectrum of an airline passengers’ purchase behaviour for both an experienced and a first-time flyer:
Understanding the consumer buying decision process is important for marketing managers for two reasons:
- It highlights very clearly that for certain types of buying decisions, a possibility exists to influence the consumer prior to the actual purchase taking place. The company should identify all the sources of information the consumer is likely to use when coming up with alternatives. The company should also determine how best to ensure that the company’s product/service message is used as a source of information by the consumer.
- The consumer buying decision process also highlights that the purchase does not end with the sale. If the consumer’s expectations about the product are not realised, then future sales to the consumer may be lost. Furthermore, negative reports to family and friends may also discourage other people from purchasing the company’s products/services in the future, thereby affecting potential sales revenues.
- By looking at each of these stages, marketing managers can see how the customer is motivated. It follows from these that there are also important implications for targeting and segmentation. The decision making process is impacted upon by a range of person specific, psychological and social differences. People also have different levels of involvement in a purchase. For example although the buyer actually purchases a flight, this may be due to the influence of their spouse.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The majority of new entrants into the global aviation industry over the past couple of decades have been what is commonly referred to as ‘low cost’ airlines. In this report, we examined the one particular airline Virgin Blue.
Overall, major changes in the domestic airline market have occurred in the past nine months and more are expected to occur. While increased competition in the market has had contradictory effects on the carriers, consumers are finally enjoying cheaper flights, with air travel now an affordable and feasible alternative to traditional forms of transport.
A key role of marketing managers is to influence and, wherever possible, to manage demand. The more an organization knows about its customers and prospective customers – their needs and desires, their attitudes and behaviour – the better it will to be able to design and implement the marketing efforts required to stimulate their purchasing decisions.
Because it is increasingly impossible to deal with all customers on a mass consumption or ‘one size fits all basis’, market segmentation is the practical expression in business of the theory of customer orientation.
The most critical factor for Virgin Blue or any new airline to overcome is the issue of brand awareness and name recognition. Customers prefer to fly with carriers they know and trust. Virgin Blue have concentrated on frequent television advertising in the effort to promote and position its service. By positioning its promotional offers in the local media, Virgin Blue has remained cost effective whilst targeting its chosen market and advertising its unique quality driven service.
Virgin Blues’ customers face different situations that influence their purchasing decisions and behaviours. Situational influences may have a very direct impact on their own but they also interact with product and individual characteristics to influence behaviour. In some cases, the situation will have no influence whatsoever because the individual’s characteristics or choices are so intense that they override everything else. But situation is always potentially important and therefore is of concern to marketing managers.
Finally, when making a purchase, customers can be seen to follow particular patterns of behaviour. This has allowed marketers to break down the decision process that a customer undertakes, and to understand their behaviour more intimately at each of the stages. Marketers can then look at these stages in turn to see how the customer is motivated. It follows from these that there are also important implications for targeting and segmentation. The decision making process is impacted upon by a range of person specific, psychological and social differences. People also have different levels of involvement in a purchase. For example although the buyer actually purchases a flight, this may be due to the influence of their spouse.
Bibliography
Textbooks
- Assael, H. 1998, Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Action. 6th edn. South Western College Publishing, California.
- Boyd, Walker and Larreche. 1998, Marketing Management. International Edition. McGraw Hill, USA.
- Kotler, Armstrong, Brown, Adam and Chandler. 1998. Marketing. 4th edn. Prentice Hall, Sydney.
- Mowen, J.C. and Minor, M. 1998, Consumer Behaviour. 5th edn. Prentice-Hall International, New Jersey.
- Neal, C., Quester, P. and Hawkins, D. 2002, Consumer Behaviour: Implications for Marketing Strategy. 3rd edn. Irwin-McGraw Hill, Sydney.
Websites
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