2.5 Expectation
Our expectations are influenced by our past experiences, and our experiences of the product, e.g. certain brands and our mind set. Our expectations are also influenced by the way something is presented to us. For example, if a ring is presented to us in an expensive looking box, we will expect it to be more expensive than if it was simply wrapped in tissue paper.
2.6 Brand perception
Brands are perceived in different ways. Usually, a company wants a brand to be perceived a certain way.
Renault is launching their new Clio to be perceived as sporty. In the adverts they show young people looking good, driving their Clio, which is making them happy. They want the Clio to be seen as a sporty car for young people.
2.7 Involuntary perception
Physiological
Perception can be involuntary. Some of the things we perceive are because of physiological factors such as: Hunger, thirst, cold, fear, sex, instinct, emotions or curiosity.
Gestalt
“Our brains tend to relate incoming sensations to others already in memory based on the fundamental organizational principles. These principles are based on Gestalt psychology, a school of thought that maintains that people derive meanings from the totality of set of stimuli, rather than from any individual stimulus” (Solomon, 2002). In short, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.
Subliminal
“Subliminal perception means perception of a stimulus below the conscious level” (Assael, 1998). Subliminal messages supposedly can be sent on both visual and aural channels. An example of that is when the possible effects of messages hidden on sound recordings, fascinate many consumers.
- Learning: behavioural and cognitive learning theories
3.1 Learning
“Learning is any permanent change in behaviour as the result of experience or practice” (Wright, 2003). As consumers gain experience in purchasing and consuming products, they learn not only what brands they like and do not like, but also the features they like most in particular brands. They then adjust their future behaviour based on past experience. Psychologists who study learning have advanced several theories explaining the learning process. These learning theories are classified in behavioural and cognitive.
3.1.1 Behavioural Learning Theories
Behavioural learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events. Behaviourist psychologists have developed two types of learning theories: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
3.1.2 Classical Conditioning
Theories of classical conditioning are reflected in Pavlov’s famous experiment. He showed a hungry dog some food, so it salivated. He repeated this several times. He then showed the hungry dog some food, but before it salivated, Pavlov rang a bell, in order to associate it with the unconditioned stimulus (food). After a number of trials, the dog learned the connection between the bell and food; and when it heard the bell even in the absence of food, it salivated.
This theory is used in advertising, for example, people associate the name Nike with sports, as they make sportswear, and most of their adverts depict sporting activities.
“ And classical conditioning works with advertising. For example, many beer ads prominently feature attractive young women wearing bikinis. The young women (Unconditioned Stimulus) naturally elicit a favourable, mildly aroused feeling (Unconditioned Response) in most men. The beer is simply associated with this effect. The same thing applies with the jingles and music that accompany many advertisements.”
http: //www.as.wvu.edu/sbb/comm221/chapters/Pavlov.htm
Table 1: classical conditioning
Adopted from Henry Assael (1998)
3.1.3 Operant Conditioning
Instrumental, or operant conditioning, also requires the development of a link between a stimulus and a response. However, the individuals determine the response that provides the greatest satisfaction. Operant conditioning involves a different series of events, and this is what we usually think of as learning. The general pattern is:
Behaviour…>consequences…>behaviour is more or less likely to be repeated
This learning process is most closely associated with the psychologist B.F. Skinner, who demonstrated the effects of operant conditioning by teaching pigeons and other animals to dance and perform other activities by systematically rewarding them for desired behaviours In instrumental learning, the response is performed because it is instrumental to gaining a reward or punishment (Solomon, 2002). There are three major forms of instrumental conditioning:
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Positive reinforcement - Suppose that you visit a new restaurant and taste (behaviour) a delicious (consequence) meal, and you are more likely having that meal in the future (behavioural change).
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Negative reinforcement –A toy market company might run an advertisement showing a kid sitting disappointed because he/she did not have its toy. The message to be conveyed is that the kid could have avoided this negative outcome if only had had that particular toy.
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Punishment – occurs when a response is following unpleasant event. For example, receiving a painful bite sticking your finger into a parrot’s cage. You will not repeat this action in the future.
Table 2:operant conditioning
Adopted from Henry Assael (1998)
3.1.4 Schedules Of Reinforcements
An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for behaviour. In order a company to achieve its aims, the most effective reinforcement schedule has to be used. Several different schedules are possible:
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Fixed internal: The consumer is given a free dish on every Monday when he/she eats in a particular restaurant.
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Fixed ratio: Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses. Every tenth time a frequent shopper card is presented, a product is provided.
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Variable ratio: Every time an action is performed, there is a certain percentage change that a reward will be given. “ They learn that if they keep throwing money into the machine, they will eventually win something (if they don’t go broke first)” (Solomon 2002).
3.1.5 Cognitive Learning Theory
In contrast to behavioural theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. In other words, cognitive theory emphasizes the thought process involved in consumer learning, whereas classical and operant conditioning emphasizes the results based on the stimulus associations.
Vicarious Learning
A type of cognitive learning that has important marketing applications is vicarious or observational learning. The consumer does not always need to go through the learning process himself or herself- sometimes it is possible to learn from observing the consequences of others. For example, viewers may empathize with characters in advertisements that experience (usually positive) results from using a product. In this way, the consumer sees the positive consequences of imitating the behaviour of others. The other side of the coin is seeing the negative consequences of another’s actions and avoiding them. For example, the social embarrassment of not using a deodorant stimulates negative vicarious learning.
- Memory and forgetting
4.1 Memory
“ All learning implies memory” (Wright, 2003). Memory involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed.
There are three kinds of memory:
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Impression: First and last impressions are very important. These are often what a person remembers about another person or a product.
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Short Term Memory: Stores information for a limited period of time and its capacity is limited; it holds the information we are currently processing. When we see an advertisement on TV for a mail order product we might like to buy, we only keep the phone number in memory until we have dialed it.
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Long Term Memory is the system that allows us to retain information for a long period of time. In order for information to enter into long-term memory from short-term memory, we must usually “rehears” it several times. Marketers assist in the process by devising catchy slogans or jingles that consumers repeat on their own.
Once information has successfully stored into long-term memory, we use deliberate strategies to encode the information.
4.2 Forgetting
Forgetting occurs when the stimulus is no longer repeated or perceived. If a product is not used or if it’s advertising discontinued, consumers may forget that product. Forgetting by consumers is a big headache for marketers.
“Interference Theory”
According to this, forgetting is more influenced by what we do before or after learning than by the passage of time. Retroactive interference occurs when later learning interferes with the recall of earlier learning. Proactive interference occurs when earlier learning interferes with later learning.
Marketers can combat forgetting by repetition, by simply maintaining the level of advertising expenditures relative to competition. However, showing the same advertisement again and again may merely irritate the consumer. The most important method of avoiding forgetting is to deliver benefits to a defined target segment.
5.0 Motivation
Motivation is: “The set of processes that activates behaviour towards a goal” (Wright 2003). In order to do something we want a goal. The level of motivation depends on how much we want the goal to be achieved. When a company is marketing a product, they must ensure that they provide prospective customers with the correct motives to buy the product.
5.1 Inherent Motivation: ‘drive’ or ‘push’ theory
The human body strives to keep equilibrium, our natural state. When this is disturbed, we are given a motivation to do something to help the body regain equilibrium. For example, when the body is thirsty the equilibrium is disturbed, giving us a motivation to drink, in order to restore the equilibrium. This is also works with basic instincts and physiological drives. Sometimes there may be drive theory problems. An example of this is people who do dangerous sports, or climb mountain simply out of curiosity.
5.2 Learned Motivation
Motivation can be learned, not just an action undertaken in order to maintain equilibrium. External stimuli can motivate us; in marketing a special offer may motivate us to buy a product. There are usually positive and negative incentives, reward and punishment.
5.3 Motivation Theories
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS appears as a pyramid, with the board base of the pyramid representing the most dominant needs. Self-actualization is shown at the top of the pyramid. Maslow’s approach specifies that needs are arranged in a sequence from lower-level needs to higher-level needs. Altogether five needs are identified:
Physiological needs: the biological needs for food, water and sleep.
Safety needs: shelter, protection and security
Love and belongingness: we need to be loved as part of a group.
Esteem Needs, prestige, success, accomplishment and ego.
Self-Actualization The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." People who have everything can maximize their potential.
Table 3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
Adopted from http: web.utk.edu/imagemap/gwynne/path/hierarchy.map
The lower levels needs are considered to dominant the higher level needs. That is consumers must satisfy lower level needs before they begin to pursue higher order needs. So, this list can serve as a key for product design.
EXPECTANCY THEORY suggests: “behaviour is largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes-positive incentives-rather than pushed from within” (Solomon 2002). We choose one product over another because we expect this choice to have more positive consequences for us.
HERTZBERG constructed a two-dimensional paradigm of factors affecting people’s attitudes:
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Hygiene factors will not increase motivation as such, but will decrease it if standards are not right. The hygiene factors serve simply to present dissatisfaction. It is necessary for a product to fulfill the hygiene factors.
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Motivator factors determine consumer satisfaction. They are present to motivate consumer to buy a product. The strength of these factors will affect feelings of satisfaction or no satisfaction, but not dissatisfaction.
Mc McClelland believed that there are two types of people: High achievers and low achievers. He believed that high achievers are driven by ambition and the need to do well. He also identified different personality traits in high and low achievers. The two different types would want to buy different products.
- Socialization
Through socializing, being with other people, being in social situations, we learn how to behave appropriately. The main groups that affect how we behave are those ones that we spend the most time with, our family, friends, school and our workplace.
The media also influences us. When with these groups we develop norms, it shows as what is acceptable or unacceptable.
Culture also affects individuals’ behaviour. People act according to their culture. In our life we play many different roles depending on whom we are with. When we are with our parents we play the sibling role, when with our friends the friend role. Sometimes there can be conflict between the roles, inter conflict.
6.1 Self Concept
“The self concept refers to the beliefs a person holds about his or her own attributes, and how he or she evaluates these qualities” (Solomon, 2002).
There are three parts to self-concept:
- Self image- How we see our self
- Self esteem-How much we like and approve our self
- Ideal self- How we would like to be
6.2 Social Groups
Groups are formed for many reasons, such as friendship groups that are informal and the place of work that is formal group. Some people need to feel part of a group (belongingness). This can be also used in marketing. For example, by having a clubcard the customer is a member of the Tesco clubcard group, so feels more valued and is more likely to continue chopping at Tesco.
- Personality
The concept of personality refers to a person’s unique psychological makeup and how it influences the way a person responds to his or her environment (Solomon 2002). Personality is useful for predicting the behaviour of consumers, so marketing can be aimed directly at them.
7.1 Freudian Theory
According to Freud personality is constructed with three parts:
The id- the behaviour of a person is guided by the primary desire to maximize pleasure and avoid pain.
The superego- Moral values and the conscience
The ego- mediates between id and superego trying to balance them
7.2 The four Personality Types and their Traits
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Melancholic people are sad and gloomy, pessimistic and often depressed.
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Choleric. These people are violent and aggressive. Choleric people are violent and aggressive.
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Phlegmatic. These are often known as ‘ice queen’. They have no emotions and appear cool towards others.
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Sanguine. This is the happiest of the four types. They are the opposite of melancholic; they are optimistic, confident and cheerful.
Trait theory is very popular as it seems logical and suggests that personality can be measured, but it is unreliable as we can not see traits, only behaviour, it is based on one model person and humans differ daily.
Personality theories are very useful in marketing; companies aims their products to appeal to certain types of personality.
- Attitude Theory
Attitude is formed by our beliefs and the strength of our values. Individuals form particular attitudes depending on many things:
- Different religions affect people’s attitudes causing conflicts
- Past experiences in situations, of people or places
- A person’s ego
- Genetics
- Culture
- Family
- Friends
- Media
There are three parts to a person’s attitude:
- Cognitive, which is thinking
- Emotion, which is feelings
- Behaviour
8.1 Changing Attitude
It is possible to change a person’s attitude. The way the message is communicated to the consumer makes a difference. Liz Hurley was used to model Estee Lauder products, to entice the consumer into believing that the product could make the consumer look beautiful.
8.2 Behaviour related to Attitude
Attitude affects behaviour and this is useful for marketers in order to predict buying behaviour. It is predicted using observation, the environment the person live in, internal and external influences and attribution theory.
9.0 Conclusion
The social sciences play an important role in consumer behaviour. They influence our unconscious and our decision-making. Marketers use these sciences as a key in order to make a new product. It is very important to understand consumer behaviour in order to formulate any marketing strategy because if the marketers are not be able to satisfy consumer’s needs, the marketing concept cannot exist.
10.0 References
- Wright, R. (1999), “Marketing: Origins, concepts, Environment”, London: Business Press Thomson Learning.
- Gross, R. (1996), “The science of Mind and Behaviour”, Bath: Bath Press, Third Edition
- Solomon, M.R. (2002), “Consumer Behaviour”, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
- Assael, H. (1998), “Consumer Behaviour”, USA: Thomson Publishing, Sixth Edition
- http: //www.as.wvu.edu/sbb/comm221/chapters/Pavlov.htm