Critically evaluate historical, classical and contemporary approaches to leadership theory.

Leadership as relationship

This theme is based on the idea of relationship network and on the concepts of partnership, empowerment and service.

Leadership in community

This leadership assumes the community as the conceptual setting where the relationship of leadership occurs.

According to Farkas and De Becker, leaders can lead in five ways:

Strategic Approach

The top strategist is the Chief Executive of any company who envisions the future systematically and map out specifically the way to get there.

Human Asset Approach

Success is managed by the Chief Executive with the help of policies of people, principles and programs.

Expertise Approach

A particular propriety expertise is championed by the Chief Executive what is then utilized for focusing the organization.

Box Approach

A set of rules, procedures, systems and values are developed by the Chief Executive in order to control behavior and results within the well defined constrains.

Change Approach

The Chief Executive behaves as a radical change agent with the transformation of bureaucracies within the organization embracing the new and different approach.

With the entrance of 21st century, the predictions of the concept of leadership development are seemed as follows:

• Leadership is for all – every individual in the present organization is a team member and a manager as well. For this reason, leadership is needed to be learnt and exhibited by everyone.
• Learning is involved in leadership – leaders always discover new knowledge and know the way of sharing it with others. With the spread of learning culture, leadership can be shown more than ever before.
• Leadership is based on team – Though every organization maintains the hierarchy and it will be exist, but the best organizations always empower their members to become a leader.
• Leadership is not authoritarian – in this 21st century, the authority of an individual is counted by his/her saying but not with his/her status. Here, leaders communicate with people but to people. New way of leadership is the outcome of new way of communication.  
• Followership is included in Leadership– leadership responsibility may be more or less person to person but every individual will learn from others. The experience of becoming a contributor will be possessed by everybody.

Explore and examine your own personal and managerial effectiveness within an organisation through a process of personal reflection.

Leadership Development Through Experience

1. The people I personally work with

I am stimulated to the development by the people I always work with. They play a vital role both in my personal and professional life.

According to Kouzes and Posner, ‘‘other people have always been important guidance sources. Our parents always provide us with advice and supports, our curiosity for any favourite subject was developed by any particular teacher, we tinkered in the garage with the help of our neighbour, we were motivated and promised to give our best to our coaches, we were given important feedback by our counsellor on our attribute and its affect, the master of art instructs us in the basic of craft, our first boss taught us to skip the ropes and hoops to jump. ’’

I am learning about the leadership whether it is effective or not by being attentive to my surrounding models who may be my immediate boss. I am taught what to do or not to do with help of watching the leadership roles of others.

Again, through the close alliance with any experienced individual who is referred as mentor and by taking me under his/her wing, valuable perspectives and insights can be achieved by me.

Executive coaching is extensively becoming a common responsibility of all the executives to the managers who report them and it is also relevant to monitoring. Again it is regarded as an investment to change counterproductive attribute, always interpersonal which is the threat of derailing a valued manger.

Development of Leadership Through Task

1. The task itself

The task of development is always vague and more complex. The development of leadership can be increased with changing of work environment. New and creative solutions may be needed for the nature of task.

The strategic planning project can be intellectually challenging and can contribute to the development of the leaders.

Those development opportunities are the best where individuals are stretched and allowed to test themselves against any new and hard task.

Some factors impacts on any task whether it is developmentally challenging or not or high level of pressure is generated. These factors include deadlines, requirements of travel, more hours and an unpredictable task where both there is a possibility of both success and failure.

All the employees may not be provided with the same development opportunities by the organization what is the aspect of the task of leadership development. There is an outstanding difference between large and small organizations in particular in what opportunities they offer.  

Leadership Development Through Education

1. Courses of University in leadership

The training program of leadership is now a day included in many universities particularly in the extracurricular activities. Personality traits, behaviours of leadership, motivation, values and different leadership theories are included in those courses for describing the process of leadership.

Method of standard lecture is used in several courses. Again students are provided with individualised feedback in some courses in the form of intelligence, values, personality and ratings of leadership behaviour.  

Several situations of leadership are described in the case studies that are used as the conveyer of the leadership discussions.

Another method is role playing where participants are assigned to play a role in a job related scenario. Trainees are thus helped to practice relevant skills.

1. Training programmes of leadership

The contents of such programs are more focused and the programs are normally very short. They include lectures, case studies and role playing exercise for the improvement of leadership.

Four different teaching methods provide effective training. These include personal growth, building of skill, feedback and conceptual awareness.

Develop an in-depth understanding of the principles of change and the organisational change process.

Change management is termed as a structured way for the transition of individuals, teams and organizations from the present to expected desired future state. There are 10 principles of change management according to  John Jones, DeAnne Aguirre and Mathew Calderone :

Systematically addressing the human side:

• The approach of change management should be fully integrated into the design of program and making decision that leads to make strategic decision. Any people issues should be dealt step by step for putting speed, morale and outcome at any risk.

Start at the top

• Change should be embraced first by the top leader of any organization like CEO for taking challenge and for motivating others. They should be model to the expected behaviors and should speak in one voice.

Involving each layer

• Leaders should be identified and trained in each layer of change efforts and they must be aligned to the vision of the company. they also should be equipped for executing particular mission and should be motivated for making change happened.  

Making the formal case

• As the individuals are rational inherently, formal case can be articulated and written version statement can be created that will ensure the alignment between team and leadership.

Creating ownership

• Ownership can be best created with the involvement of people to identify problems and to craft solutions. It can be tangible or psychological and is is reinforced by incentives and rewards.        

Communicating the message

• Change programs can be best where core messages are reinforced through regular and timely advice which is both practical and inspirational. The flow of communication moves out from the top to bottom and employees are provided with the right information at the right time that helps soliciting their input and feedback. This communications require multiple and redundant channels.

Evaluating the cultural landscape

• Leaders are accounted for culture at each organizational level through the successful change program where speed and intensity are picked up when they flow down. Cultural diagnostics helps to assess the readiness of organization to the change, bring key issues, identify conflicts and define factors of recognizing the leadership and resistance sources.

Addressing culture clearly

• The culture and underlying behaviors should be cleared by the leaders that support the new business method. Opportunities for rewarding those behaviors are also found by the leaders.  A cultural change can be kicked start effectively with the understanding that all companies posses a cultural centre.

Preparation for the unexpected

• Effective change management continuously reassesses the impact of the unexpected reaction of people, willingness of organization and ability of adopting the next transformation. Momentum can be maintained with the real data from the field and solid decision making.

Speaking to the people

• People want to know about the change, the expectation towards them and their performance assessment process. Leaders need to be cleared and honest about this all. Rewards should be promoted as dramatic reinforcement to embrace change.

The Rational Approach to Organisational Change

A rational and straightforward approach has been offered by Michael Beer to organizational change where many issues were addressed that were raised by other author. A roadmap is provided by this for the practitioners of leadership who want to implement the initiative of an organizational change. Again, it also provides a diagnostic tool to understand the reason of the failure of change.  The model is as follows:

• D = Dissatisfaction
• M = Model
• P = Process
• R = Resistance
• Dissatisfaction

Organisational Change Process

• The process of chance is done by merger and acquisition, change of CEO or board. There are usual interruptions of downsizing, restructure, closures and other activities where many unintended consequences are occurred with some kind of successes.
• There is also an invariable impact on the member with the fear and stress. Though change is possible without harming people but more attention is required for this purpose.
• The change of an organization is triggered by problem or opportunity usually that can be present or future, real or apparent.  

• There may also the internal of external origin of these problems or opportunities.

Organisational Change Triggered by Problems

• The problems can be described as symptoms or as cause.
• A problem should be observed for the identification or description.

The problems mainly consist of the following groups:

Problems that focus people                        Problems that focus Organization

• Meetings                                             Climate/Culture
• Communication                                 Changes in Technology & market Leadership or following                        Performance, planning, workforce
• Performance of the Individual                Planning        
• Performance of the team                              workforce
• Processes of the decision                         Change or transformation

Organizational Change triggered by Opportunities

• This type of change is generated from the external environment consisting of the environment of the trading or the internal ownership of the new capacities.
• Opportunities that are external can be unpredictable or random where internal opportunities can be occurred through developing programs and redistribution of the work to the present capabilities.
• New technology and skills are also the form of opportunities.

Critically appraise change theories, tools and techniques.

Change management consist the following theories:

Lewin’s Three Step Change Theory

In 1951, three step change theory was introduced by Kurt Lewin. Behaviour is shown as a dynamic balance of forces that work in opposite direction.

Change is facilitated by the driving forces as employees are pushed in the desired direction by them.

Change is hindered by restraining forces as employees are pushed her in the opposite direction.

The balance of forces can be shifted to the planned change with the help of this model.

Unfreeze

Unfreezing the present situation or status quo which is considered as the equilibrium state is the first step of the process of changing behavior. It is important for overcoming the strain of the resistance of individual and conformity of the group. Three methods can do this unfreezing:  

• Increasing driving forces by which behavior is directed away from the status quo.
• Decreasing the restraining forces by which the movement is negatively affected from the present equilibrium
• Combining the above two methods.

Other activities of unfreezing include motivating participants with their preparation for change, building trust, recognition of the change requirement and participating actively in the recognizing problems and also brainstorming the solution of any group problem.

Move

• The target system is moved to a new equilibrium level in this step. It includes three steps: persuasion of the employees for their agreement in the non importance of the status quo and to encourage them for viewing the problem from a fresh viewpoint.
• Working together for finding out new related information.  
• Connecting the group views to the powerful and well respect leaders.  

Refreeze

• After the implementation of the change, this step takes place for the sustenance of the change for longer time. It is the real integration of the new values into the values and traditions of a community. The stabilization of the new equilibrium is the purpose of this step that is the outcome of the change with the balance of both driving restraining forces.

Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory

A seven step theory was created by Lippitt focusing on the role and responsibility of the change agent rather than its evolution.

• The seven steps consist:

1. Problem diagnosing.
2. Evaluating the motivation and change capacity.
3. Evaluating the resources and motivation of the change agent.
4. Choosing the progressive objects of the change.
5. Selecting the role of the change agents and clearing to all to clear the expectations.
6. Maintaining the change
7. Gradual termination for the assisting relationship.

It is pointed out by Lippitt that when changes are spread to the neighboring system or to the subparts of the system, changes seem to be more stable.

Changes are well rooted. Other problems are met by the individuals, same innovation is adopted by the similar business or the problem is spread to other departments of the similar business.

Behavior is regarded normal depending upon the spread of the imitation.  

Social Cognitive Theory

According to this theory, change in behavior is impacted by the influences of the environment, personal factors and behavioral attribute.

Behaviour is the outcome of the consequences. How the consequences of behavior are perceived by the individuals can be understood by the reaction of the individuals. For this reason, positive expectation of individuals should overweigh the negative one in order to the existence of the social learning.

The behavioural change of a person can be determined by the self efficiency which is the most vital characteristic. A person’s expectation for the ability of performing the behavior in the first time filters the expected outcome of self efficacy.

Three methods to increase self efficacy are :

• provide clear instructions
• provide the opportunity for skill development
• model the desired behaviour.

When implementing employee training programmes, there are four processes that should be exercised : attentional processes, retention processes, motor reproduction processes and reinforcement processes.

Techniques that can be used to manage change include, managing the transition, communicating and involving employees and volunteers in change, understanding and managing resistance to change, involving stakeholders in change and managing organizations in crisis.

Critically appraise the implementation of the change process including resistance to change and practical management aspects.

According to most of the businesses, frequent change is like a game where its resistance is like nemesis as resistance is always there in every step of change.

Typical stages for adopting change:

If any company wants to lay off 30% of their workforce for company’s slowdown economy and profit declination, the following situation can be raised:

• The first reaction of an individual will be surprise and shock who is asked to leave as this individual may not be aware of the condition of the market.
• The next stage of the reaction is anger due to the individual’s previous dedications for the company where this are not counted any more.
• Then the individual want to reject and start questioning about company’s decision and tries to be rational of the probability that company may call him/her back.
• At last, the individual accept this realizing the fact about company’s situation and also understanding that company will never call back; so starting exploring new career.

The above mentioned changes make up SARA model that consists of four reactions- shock, anger, rejection and acceptance.

According to Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn (2005), following criteria should be met in order to overcome resistance:

• Benefit – whatever the change is, it should have a clear advantage to all who implicated with this change. The change should direct a “better way”.
• Compatibility – the change should be compatible with present value and the experiences of the individuals related to change.
• Complexity – the change should be apprehensible and should not be complex so that people can easily get it.
• Trying ability – change should be adjustable so that people can try to adopt it step by step can adjust the change with the progression.

Strategies to resolute conflict:

According to K.W. Thomas, there are five general approaches that can resolute conflict. They are as follows:

• Competition – an intention of the achievement of one’s own end compensated by other’s expense is reflected by this. It is a domination of win-lose orientation.
• Accommodation – a mirror image of competition is reflected by it where the achievement of one’s own end is less important rather than concern of someone else. This is a type of a tactic of appeasement.
• Sharing – it compromises between domination and appeasement. Here the satisfaction is moderate but incomplete.
• Collaboration – here the efforts of the both party’s satisfaction is reflected. The approach is for solving problems where the integration of the each party’s concern is required.
• Avoidance – indifference in the both party’s concern is reflected. A withdrawal from any party’s interest is also reflected by it.

Develop the student’s ability to act as a change agent within an organization.

Change agent refers to the individual by whom change is led in any organization with the championing of change and its implementation plan and management. The goal of a change agent is to make change that has success and has an end after its starting. A student can play a role of a change agent too. In order to do so he/she should have to possess the following characteristics:

• The need for change should be accepted, communicated and defended throughout the organization creating a respective and open environment.
• Change should be defined and initiated, the leverage points of change in process and the habits of work should be identified.
• Change should be led. The vision of the organization should be translated into the context of a particular initiative of the change and this message should be brought to the entire organization. These approaches should be redirected in the face of new opportunities.
• Complex change should be managed, the organization’s cultural dynamics of the present state should be understood, a strategically practical course should be created and the present reality should be balanced with the need for prompt adoption of the expected  future reality
• Change should be championed, status quo should be challenged with the comparison of it to an ideal change vision and crisis for supporting dramatic actions and change effort should be caused.

There are also seven role students can play as a change agent:

Seven roles of a Change Agent

• The detective – as a change agent, student can look for clues that can resist change and also can investigate below the surface for understanding the dynamics of the organization.
• The advocate – the student can speak up on behalf of the change and pay others attention to it. He/she can also gain support for the initiative and ensure the participation of people. He/she should be vocal and persistent.
• The counsellor – the student can act as a counselor by listening and encouraging. They can understand the personal implications of the involvement of people for which people may feel better to make change.
• The facilitator – a student can find way to ease the change by helping people. He/she should be creative and helpful.
• The mediator – a student can also act as a mediator to make understand the different parties and to reduce confliction by collaborating among themselves to implement change.
• The expert – As expert, students can direct the individuals in the right way by sharing knowledge. They should be confident and knowledgeable.
• The law – Change agent also seek for the way to retain people accountable by ensuring them about the appropriate reward and punishment where necessary.

Source:  Heather Stagl, Jan 2011

Key Competencies of a Change Agent

As a change agent, the following competencies should be possessed by a student:

Objectives: sensitivity to change, setting goals, flexibility in response to change.

Roles: ability of building team, networking skills, tolerance of ambiguity.

Communication: communication skills, interpersonal skills, enthusiastic, motivated and committed.

Negotiation: skills of selling plan and ideas, negotiation skills to resolve conflict.

Managing up: awareness of politics, influencing skills, helicopter perspective.

Source : Dagmar Recklies, Oct 2001

Understand and appraise the need to integrate the management of change with other business and management disciplines.

Change integration means to manage an organization in an structured, integrate and planned way thought change into other parts of the discipline or management of the business. This is very important for the organization for the successful navigation of the change processes.

Change management is a systematic way of integrating and managing change associated with business strategy focusing on the business and the people.

Strategy of Change Management

A standardized framework for planning and implementing change is used by this strategy for ensuring:

• Needs, priorities and goals of the Business are relevant to the particular changes.
• The identification of risks and its management.
• Processes of capturing investment return and standardization of adding value.
• The change of human side is minimized in the projects.  
• Building and reinforcing skills like leadership, resiliency and adaptability of change
• Minimization of any severity of any affect.
• The desired goals are met by changes within the limitation of time and budget.
• The application of the method of exact and consistent tracking and reporting.

Importance of the integration of business process

The rewards of the active continuity of an integrated business strategy can be important and its failure can be disastrous. For instance, a case of a rapidly growing heavy manufacturing business can be considered where its strategies for finance, sales and manufacture have failed to align. Though the company is proud for its rapid growing order book and capacity of the manufacture but involving finance in a decision for pursuing order has failed and the inventories for finished goods were built but had to manage a limitation arose from a drive train component’s faulty result. This results building up largely the work in progress and finished goods that could be invoiced again. Thus until the fault is corrected the customers refuse to accept new product and by contract will not pay on the delivered goods. So, a sudden crisis of cash is found due to the building up inventories and for the due of the commitments to the suppliers and also for not paying for delivery goods by the customers.

What is Integrated Planning

Integrated planning is termed as the exercise of a joint planning ensuring the participation of all stakeholders and impacted departments. The objectives of it is to access all social, economic and environmental cost and benefits for determining the most appropriate option for planning a sustainable course of action.

Why Integrated Planning

• Communication is facilitated by the systems– the capacity of communication and flow of information is increased by quality information systems towards integrated pathways. It is vital that information can access anywhere in the organizational system even in the remote location so that seamless communication can be facilitated between business areas.
• Participation can be facilitated by communications – the willingness of participation in the change enhances with the number of business find out about the change and kept in the loop.
• Training is enhanced through participation – when the enthusiasm of participation in the change process is shown by different stakeholders,  many training programs can be developed through the organization for the successful implementation of the change.  
• Interviewing the process, systems and job descriptions of the business– one process can be input of another. Different departments may have expertise that is needed to be brought together as a team.
• If the acting of left and right hand is not combined it will be noticed by the External stakeholders instantly – external stakeholders consist of general public, environmentalists and the government etc. If the integration of the change is not well in the organization, there is a chance of repeating process and wastage of valuable time and even the refusing of function by the part of the organization. Thus the customers, public and others are negatively impacted by this. Again a negative brand image is also carried out by this.

Source : National Centre for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2011-2015.

Conclusion:

Change is vital for any organization depending upon the situation and it should be adopted through proper leadership. Thus leadership should be developed with the proper training and the conception of leadership should be integrated to the mind of every individual. The success of overall strategy of any organizations thus can be properly achieved through the proper understanding of these two vital issues.

Reference:

1.        Mary P. Follett : Prophet of Management, 1920

2.        Bob Terry; Authentic Leadership: Courage in Action 1998

3.        Watson, C.M. (), ‘Leadership, management and the Seven Keys’, 1983, Business Horizons, March-Apri

4.        JOHNSON, G & SCHOLES, K (1999)  Exploring Corporate Strategy: Fifth Edition.  Prentice Hall, Harlow, UK.

5.        Viljoen, J. and Dann, S. (2000) Strategic Management: Planning and Implementing Successful Corporate Strategies, (3rd Ed.), Longman, Frenchs Forest.

6.        Marks & Spencer, 2010. Annual report 2009-2010. [Online].

Available at: http://wwwmarks-and-spencer.co.uk/corporate/annual2010/ [accessed 5th May 2011]