Methods used to gather data
Questionnaires are often used in quantitative data collection. Kervin(1999) reserve it exclusively for surveys where the person answering the question actually records their own answers. In the study, the same questionnaires were mailed to different industries in different numbers. Bell (1999) asserts the idea that survey respondents should be asked the same set of questions in, where possible, the same circumstances. He says, “The aim of it is to obtain answers to the same questions from a large number of individuals not only to describe but also to compare, to relate one characteristic to another and to demonstrate that certain features exist in certain categories.”
Data collection in surveys is conducted mainly though three types of questionnaires: the mail or self-completion questionnaire, the telephone survey and the face-to-face interview schedule. For the purpose of this research, self-completion questionnaires have been chosen as the main data collection method. May (2001) explains that the self-completion questionnaire is considered to be a relatively cheap method of data collection when compared, for instance, to the face-to-face interview. Secondly, when dealing with ethically or politically sensitive issues, the anonymity of mail questionnaire may be another pros. Besides, people can consider their responses by taking their own time to fill in the questionnaire. Finally, it is possible to cover wider geographical area at a lower cost. Most importantly, it provides more participants than that of interview.
In contrast, May (2001) suggests that self-completion questionnaires carry the disadvantage that there is no control over who answers the questionnaire. In addition, it is necessary to keep questions relatively simple and straightforward, as the researcher has no control over how people understand the question once it has been posted. Another issue the response rate may be low and the researcher cannot check on the bias of the final sample.
In my opinion, the participants of the research are the salesperson of the various industries in Spain. Therefore, self-completion questionnaires are the most appropriate method to collect data. One of the strengths of it in such circumstances is it successfully solves the geographic gap to get information. One of the weaknesses is that the participants who fill in the questionnaire may worry about confidential of their assessment of their supervisor.
Ethnical issues
Ethics is the study of the right behavior and addresses the question of how to conduct the research in a moral and responsible way. There are two dominant philosophical standpoints on research ethics: deontology and teleology (Blumberg, 2005). They guide the relationship between researchers and the participants, researchers and the integrity of the research. In general, the research must be designed properly and should avoid sensitive topics, such as religious, politics, age and salary and so on. Also, the actual purpose and benefits of your study or experiment must be identified and confidentiality, informed consent and freedom from harm must be promised. Knowing why one is being asked questions improves cooperation through honest disclosure. So a respondent does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment or loss of privacy. In conclusion, the researcher can get the accurate feedback.
Ethnical issues are one of the necessities to be considered during the whole research process. In the study, it perfectly designed the concern of ethnical issues. In the mailed letter, it briefly explains the goals of the research, a promise of confidentiality, a description of the procedures for returning the survey and a questionnaire and a stamped pre-addressed envelope in which the surveys could be returned to the researchers. However, the research involves the investigation of the age of the supervisors and their subordinates separated by gender. This may lead to an ethnical issue.
Methods of analysis
In order to analyze the research data, quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis are involved. Both approaches are discussed in the study. In terms of quantitative data, it can be divided into two distinct groups: categorical and quantifiable. Categorical data refer to data whose values cannot be measured numerically but can be either classified into categories or placed in rank order. These could be further sub-divided into descriptive and ranked. Quantifiable data are those whose values you actually measures numerically as quantities. Within this group, there is also a subdivision: continuous and discrete (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003).
According to the mail questionnaire, the researcher calculates the mean age of the supervisor and their mean duration of position divided by gender. The ‘mean’ is one of the three types of average, including the median and the model. The advantage of it is it is scientific, confidence and better measures than impressions and easy to analyze. Most importantly, data shown by table presents a clear trend. The disadvantage of mean is it can be used only with real numbers and it is affected by extreme value. Another issue is it may lead to strange descriptions. For example, in the article the mean number of responses is 3.5 people. What does 0.5 person look like?
Computer software plays a significant role in analyzing data. These range from spreadsheets such as Excel and Lotus 1-2-3 to more advanced data management and statistical analysis software packages such as Minitab, SAS, SPSS for Windows and Statview. The researcher utilizes software named Structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the hypothesized relationships among impression management tactics, physical attractiveness, perceived interpersonal abilities, supervisor liking, and supervisor ratings of sales agent’s performance. It is useful because it allows several hypothesized relationships to be tested meanwhile, provides an indication of the fit between the hypothesized model and the actual data and allows for the evaluation of alternative models. On the other hand, too many variables may lead to data overload. Moreover, it is dangerous for researchers become obsessed with such techniques, which might cause misleading guide of the research.
Regarding qualitative data analysis, the writer utilizes the hypothesis. In the article, the researcher makes five hypotheses to measure performance of salespeople: supervisor’s liking, performance ratings, physical attractiveness, and impression management tactics. Problem may be there might some other factors that can affect performance appraisal.
Validity and reliability
Reliability is the degree to which the finding is independent of accidental circumstances of the research, and validity is the degree to which the finding is interpreted in a correct way. Reliability and validity are by no means symmetrical. Reliability is a form of validity. It is easy to obtain perfect reliability with no validity at all. On the other hand, perfect validity would assure perfect reliability. Social science has relied almost entirely on techniques for assuring reliability, since perfect validity is not theoretically available. Most non-qualitative research methodologies come complete with a variety of checks on reliability and none on validity (Kirk, Miller, 1986)
In the research findings, SEM results indicated that supervisor-focused impression management was positively related to the supervisor’s liking of the salesperson. In addition, a salesperson’s physical attractiveness demonstrated positive effects on performance ratings, through the influence on supervisor’s liking and salesperson’s interpersonal skills.
The findings highlight some potential approaches for future research. One useful direction will be to examine potential moderators and mediators to the basic model. Further research is needed to investigate how impression management tactics affect other types of human resources decisions besides the sales performance evaluation process, such as promotion or training decisions. In addition, there are other social and contextual variables that have been addressed by the organizational literature and that might be interesting to analyze by the sales literature. However, the process of SEM will be hard to explain and the other contextual variables may influence the result of SEM. Common method variance may be another problem.
Assess implication of the research
The study makes a great deal of contribution to further research. Firstly, it enhances the understanding of the importance of social and affective elements to sales performance evaluation decisions. Secondly, we have to take into consideration that most of the literature about impression management is US-centered. However, the data was gathered in Spain, which might provide an insight of these behaviors and job attitudes to other countries. Thirdly, the use of multiple-source information should allow more confidence to be placed in the validity of our interpretations of results.
The present study is not without limitations. First, while the response rate is fairly high, we are unable to assure if the respondents in our study differed from those who do not respond. Second, impression management tactics are based on subordinate self-reports, which potentially can introduce distortion through self-serving bias. Future research is needed that assesses influence tactics from independent sources such as peers.
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