Evaluate the models of stress at work and outline implications for stress management interventions.

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Evaluate the models of stress at work and outline implications for stress management interventions

Since the mid-1950s the topic of stress at work has received much attention, mainly because it has important consequences for both individuals and organisations. Before proceeding to discuss findings in this area it is important to define stress and relevant concepts. A stressor is an external source or cause of a process that may give rise to stress.  Stress is the consequences of the stressor, which manifest in the impairment of either psychological or physiological wellbeing. Coping is the attempt to manage demands presented by the stressor so as to minimise the detrimental outcome in terms of stress. Discussion will focus on what is stress and how it has been conceptualised, costs of stress to individuals and organisations, models of stress at work and stress interventions.

Early definitions of stress were somewhat vague. Cannon (1935, in Warr, 1996) studied the effects of stress on animals and people and spoke of individuals being ‘under stress’ when they experienced extreme physical conditions (such as heat and cold). However, early definitions did not clearly distinguish between subjective experiences of individuals and the environmental conditions producing those experiences.

Seyle (1936 in Warr, 1996) defined stress as a non-specific outcome of any demand made upon the organism. He described the response that an organism makes to an environmental demand as the General Adaptation Syndrome. Although this has served as a stimulus for much research, Seyle’s stimulus-response conceptualisation does not take into account individual differences. Some people tolerate stressful conditions better that others and are more effective with coping with stressors.

Lazarus’s model of cognitive appraisal (in Warr, 1996) is important as it focuses attention on processes of coping with stress. Primary appraisal occurs when the person evaluates the environment in terms of significance for their well-being. This can be evaluated as irrelevant, positive or stressful (either a threat, challenge or causing harm or loss). This is followed by secondary appraisal, during which the person assesses what can be done about the situation to reduce the amount of stress experienced. Reappraisal involves evaluating whether or not one’s attempts at coping have been successful.

Cummings and Cooper (1979 in Arnold, 1998) suggest that each factor of a person’s emotional and physical state has a ‘range of stability’, in which the person feels comfortable. When a factor is pushed beyond its range of stability stress occurs within the individual. Each of these approaches have contributed to our understanding of work-related stress, and also stimulated research into its causes and consequences. Stress has been the topic of much research as it not only has important consequences for the individual but also for the organisation.

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Stress is a contributory factor to serious ailments that can affect individuals such as coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, migraine, rheumatoid arthritis and diabetes. Today in the United Kingdom one person every 3 to 4 minutes die from coronary heart disease. Almost half of all Americans die of cardiovascular disease. Physical effects of stress on an individual include tiredness, lack of appetite, constipation or diarrhoea, insomnia, cramps, nausea and impotency. Behavioural effects include constant irritability with people, lack of interest in life, difficulties in concentrating, alcohol abuse and family breakdown. Psychological consequences of stress include mental illness, anxiety ...

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