In low trust societies (e.g. China, Hong Kong, and Spain), which are more family or kinship-based, are more likely to:
- Encourage small enterprise, which may be more flexible than bigger firms but may be limited to certain sectors of the global economy, as it cannot achieve economies of scale to remain profitable in the long run.
- Lack commitment and loyalty to the organisation because responsibility lies solely with top management. Workers, as a result, feel fenced in and isolated by a set of bureaucratic rules
He emphasises that Japan appears to possess the ability to impulsively generate strong social groups/organisations in the ‘middle part of the spectrum’- that is, in the region between the family on one hand, and the state on the other.
In summary, high trust societies (e.g. Japan, Germany, and the United States) are more likely to:
- Create large, modern, professionally-managed hierarchical organisations
- Be more flexible in adopting new organisational forms with regard to technology and market changes.
- Build commitment and loyalty to the organisation as more responsibility is delegated to the lower levels of an organisation.
In his view, there seems to be a relationship between high-trust societies with plenty of social capital, and the ability to create large, private business organisations, which contrasts low-trust societies in that they are characterised by a high degree of generalised trust, and a strong tendency for the spontaneous sociability.
4.0 Cross-cultural Management
Hall (1989) conveys cross-cultural management practices by differentiating between monochronic and polychronic cultures. Hall (1959) first distinguished these two behaviours as monochronic and polychronic behaviours. Monochronic behaviour or monochronicity is doing one thing at a time, and polychronic behaviour or polychronicity is doing many things at a time (Hall, 1983).
The monochronic person always schedules tasks and they “permit only a limited number of events within a given period… Important things are taken up first and allotted the most time; unimportant things are left to be last or omitted if time runs out” (Hall, 1989).
For a polychronic person, there is little or no effect when “things are constantly shifted around. Nothing seems solid or firm, particularly plans for the future, and there are always changes in the most important plans right up to the very last minute” (Hall, 1989).
Therefore monochronic cultures act in a focused manner, concentrating on one thing at a time. To such people time is a scarce resource, which has an opportunity, cost (Corr, D., 2004).
Polychronic cultures are flexible and unconstrained with time; time is neither seen as a resource nor as an opportunity cost. They do many things at once, often in an unplanned sequence (Corr, D., 2004).
Japanese can be classed as being monochronic and the Spaniards as polychronic. The table (overleaf) demonstrates some cross-cultural management practices in both monochronic and polychronic cultures:
Table 1: Japanese monochronic and Spaniards polychronic cultures: http://hsb.baylor.edu/html/vanauken/mcul.htm
5.0 Leadership Styles
The leadership grid described by Blake and Mouton provides a basis for comparing leadership styles in terms of concern for production and concern for people. Concern for production describes the amount of emphasis a manager places on accomplishing the task, achieving a high level of production, and getting results or profit. Concern for people is the amount of emphasis, which a manager gives to subordinates and colleges as individuals and their needs and expectations (Mullins, L., 1999).
Figure 2. Blake & Mouton leadership grid, adapted Mullins, L., 1999
Leadership style in Japan is described as 9,9 ’team management’ which demonstrates a high concern for both people and production. They work to motivate employees to reach their highest level of accomplishment and they are flexible and responsive to change. The leadership style in Spain is described as 1,9 ‘country club management’ which demonstrates a high concern for people and little concern for production. They try to avoid conflicts and concentrate on being liked, even at the expense of production (Corr, D., 2004 and Mullins, L., 1999).
6.0 Analysis & Critical Evaluation
6.1 Hofstede Dimensions and management practices of:
JAPAN:
In Appendix 3 agrees with theory as Japan does still have a strong hierarchical structure as you can see, from the article there is allot of structure over a simple appeal by teachers. The article also shows the group emphasis due to it not just being one person appealing its all the 171 teachers it can also show that the job is more important than profit or money, which supports Hofstede theory on power distance. However more importantly there is a change here and simply it looks as if Japan could be headed towards a low power distance culture due to employees standing up for their rights against high centralised power, this agrees with Herbing and Jacobs (1998) point that the superior power is not absolute. Also notable in the article loyalty to the company and people within the organisation is crucial, it is part of the way people in the society introduce and show respect to each other.
At the moment in Japan there is slow growth and high unemployment, basically in Appendix 5 Japan is in a state of economic instability. According to www.hsb.baylor.edu the Japanese place high priority to life long employment and loyalty to groups as you can see due to their instability this is not happening this contradicts theory due to life long employment being one of its main cultural aspects. They are also increasing their uncertainty avoidance due to allying with the United States against Korea, Iraq and Afghanistan in order to gain stability through oil supplies. Which is also contradicting theory as they are breaking social ties and threatening the Wa (peace). Simply Japanese society is starting to become more risk taking. This statement also contradicts with uncertainty avoidance stated by Hofstede, which describes Japanese as risk averse.
Collectivism is of the main characteristics Hofstede mentioned about Japans culture. Japanese used to commit themselves to the organisation doing everything together from shopping to even sleeping in the company with their co-workers. Nowadays Japan is still a collectivist society a good example is the article in Appendix 7. From this you can see that merging with other Asian countries to try and attain a niche market of the 4G mobile phones is exactly like their collectivist culture. However other culture may effect them and their culture but groups and teamwork are a way of like their so Hofstede point about Japan is right they are a collectivist culture and have had little movement away from this.
There is still a gender differentiation in Japan. ‘Japanese men aren’t used to dealing with women as equals in a business setting’. This statement corresponds with Hofstede’s variable on masculinity (Appendix 8). Japanese women do want to create careers for themselves but this is not likely that they would rise to senior positions in Japan in this moment in time. This statement relies on the majority of women working in Japan, although there might be a few women who do rise, it is an aspect of their culture that will take some time to change. However their has been a movement of Japanese women to other nations and they are currently attaining higher positions there.
SPAIN:
While Spain’s attitude towards power distance is still high but however according to Appendix 4 slowly changing due to the fact that allot of Spanish businesses are family run and hire friends to work for them, thus when making a decision advice from these people is becoming increasing important which relates to Cheney (1999) point that power distance is changing. There is still and obvious hierarchy as shown in the article and employees are only allowed to give certain input depending if they have been given the powering the first place, which also agrees with Hofstede (1991) point about employees can only give a little input into a decision.
In Spain there is also high uncertainty avoidance due to the bombing in Appendix 6, simply thought his article it agrees with the theory that if Spanish mangers make a decision someone else will not convince them. Spain made a decision about sending troops to Iraq, which caused conflict and the terrorist attacks, from this attack they reinforced their decision by sending more troops. But this agrees with Hofstede rating of Spain as high uncertainty avoidance.
Spaniards are still a collectivist culture; they care for each other in society like a family. This is supporting Hofstede’s theory on collectivism (Appendix 4). Most of the Spanish firms are still family owned small businesses, larger co-operations are owned by foreigners investing in the country. Groups are highlighted as being very important in the article, the Spanish believe if you are not in a group then you are not an integral part of society and deemed unimportant which could restrict business activities thus highlighting importance of the Spanish collectivist culture.
Although women in Spain do have careers and can rise to high positions in society, men don’t treat them as equals in the society. This is confirms Hofstede’s theory which states that men still hold the majority of positions within the company. However women still have an important role in society (Appendix 9). Nowadays and according to the article this is changing women are trying to attain higher positions but it is a slow change the main hindrance of this is the actually mentality of the women themselves.
The analysis on the majority of the theories motioned in this report were collected some time ago, the world is a much different place than it was say thirty years ago states Trompenaars. However there has only been little movement in Hofstede’s findings according to the articles on Japan and Spain so they can still be valid however research will need to be done in the future due to there are some signs of changes within the Japanese and Spanish cultures. Another problem is that in reality individual situations must be assessed, theories provide a general stereotyping technique based on the major characteristics in cultures.
Hofstede dimensions have caused a shift in management practices the next section will analyse whether it has affected Japan and Spain in terms of Trust defined by Fukuyama (1995).
6.2 High and Low Trust:
Fukuyama 1995 emphasises that Japan appears to possess the ability to impulsively generate strong social groups/organisations in the ‘middle part of the spectrum’- that is, in the region between the family on one hand, and the state on the other. Fukuyama 1995 essentially sees Japan as being a ‘high trust society’. Evidence supports this statement due to the way the Japanese mange and welcome change. (Appendix 3 and Appendix 7)
Fukuyama, (1995) also suggests that Spain exhibits a saddle-shaped distribution of organisations, with strong families and family business sector, a strong state and state sector large foreign owned companies, and relatively little between the way of intermediate social or organisations. He persists, stating that hierarchies are necessary because not all people within the community can be relied upon to live by tacit ethical rules alone. They must ultimately be forced by explicit rules and sanctions, in the event they do not live up to these ethical codes. Evidence (Appendix 13) backs this up by stating that Spain is a low trust society
6.3 Cross-cultural management
Japanese are described as workaholic. This is leading to more suicides in Japan because of work-related stress. Time is a valuable resource to them, they aim to use it effectively and as much as possible (Appendix 11). The Japanese are used to this determination to achieve an outcome whatever the situation or problem, they have adapted to this lifestyle of working hard, but nowadays expectations of employees seem to rise even higher and some cannot cope with the stress. Appendix 10 shows that Japanese business culture supports the theory by www.hsb.baylor.edu. It explains that Japanese are perfectionists in every aspect of their environment and education. Simply it describes Japan as a monochronic culture.
There is evidence that time is flexible to the Spaniards. This supports the theory by www.hsb.baylor.edu where he describes Spanish culture as polychronic, and states that they are unconstrained with time (Appendix 12). This may be a result of them not planning their activities because as a society they are not acquainted to worry about time. The environmental aspects of Spain also affect the will power to work. For this reasons almost every company has a siesta for a few hours. This does not mean that they achieve less work; it is divided into different working hours.
6.4 Leadership styles
Senior managers in Japan are seeking firmer leadership and moving away from decision-making. This contradicts with the theory by Blake and Mouton as they state that leadership style is based on teamwork, in which decision is made ‘collectively’ (Appendix 7). Teamwork is essential in all businesses in Japan; they base most of the working environment around teamwork.
Managers in Spain are adopting some qualities they admire in other leaders. This contradicts the theory by Blake and Mouton. They state that leaders in Spain show little concern for production - in other words leadership, while the evidence suggest that leaders are concerned about their leadership style (Appendix 13).
7.0 Conclusions & Recommendations
Conclusions:
From the analysis and evaluation it can be concluded that Japan and Spain are slightly similar in their cultures, as demonstrated in Figure 1. This area of similarity appeared to be larger according to Hofstede’s analysis.
Both Spanish and Japanese cultures seem to be experiencing evolutionary change, but it appears to be faster in Japan than Spain.
Employers in Japan should encourage a work-life balance procedure, to give employees more freedom and time to do more out of work activities and relief some of the stress at work in order to eliminate stress related suicide.
Employing more strict equal opportunities laws and regulations in Spain would ensure that women are treated fairly. For Japanese women it would give them a place in society and business, which without a doubt would benefit Japan greatly.
It is the duty of the employers to stress to their staff the importance of understanding other cultures by providing cross-cultural awareness programs. But it is up to the employee to do the research beforehand.
However all the factors from the analysis and background reading cause differing issues to how an English company should do business with the two countries. The recommendations (overleaf) show how an English company should do business with Japan and Spain.
Recommendations for doing business in Japan:
Language
- Japanese is the official language of Japan. It is a complex and subtle language, and is spoken nowhere else in the world as a primary tongue. Most sentences in Japanese can be expressed in at least four different levels of politeness.
Appointments
- Be punctual at all times. During three weeks of the year (New Year's holidays, December 28 to January 3; Golden Week, April 29 to May 5; and Obon, in mid-August), many people visit the graves of their ancestors. Conducting business and traveling are difficult during these periods.
Negotiating
- A Japanese response "I'll consider it" may actually mean "no." Negatively phrased questions will get a "yes" if the Japanese speaker agrees. Negotiations are begun at the executive level and continued at the middle level (working level).
Business Entertaining
- Business entertaining usually occurs after business hours, and very rarely in the home. Allow your host to order for you (this will be easier, too, since the menus are in Japanese). Be enthusiastic while eating, and show great thanks afterwards.
Protocol
- The Japanese are very aware of Western habits, and will often greet you with a handshake. The bow is their traditional greeting. If someone bows to greet you, observe carefully. Bow to the same depth as you have been bowed to, because the depth of the bow indicates the status relationship between you. As you bow, lower your eyes. Keep your palms flat against your thighs.
- The business card is extremely important for establishing credentials. Present your card with the Japanese side facing your colleague, in such a manner that it can be read immediately. Do not put the cards in your pocket, or in your wallet if you plan to put it in your back pocket. Never write on a person's business card.
Gestures
- Japan is a high-context culture; even the smallest gesture carries great meaning. Therefore, avoid expansive arm and hand movements, unusual facial expressions, or dramatic gestures of any kind. Nose blowing in public is not acceptable. When you must blow your nose, use a disposable tissue and then throw it out.
Gifts
- Gift giving is very common in Japan. Business gifts absolutely must be given at midyear (July 15) and at year end (January 1). They are often given at first business meetings. Good gifts are imported scotch, cognac, or frozen steaks; electronic toys for children of associates; or items made by well-known manufacturers, preferably foreign name brands.
Dress
- Men should wear conservative suits, and never appear casual. Slip-on shoes are best, as you will remove them frequently. Women should dress conservatively, keeping jewellery, perfume, and makeup to a minimum. Pants are not appropriate. High heels are to be avoided if you risk towering over your Japanese counterparts. If you wear a kimono, wrap it left over right! Only corpses wear them wrapped right over left.
(www.a-zofetiquette.com) (www.executiveplanet.com/business-culture-in)
Recommendations for Doing Business in Spain
The People
- Personal pride and individualism are highly valued, as are character and breeding. Modesty is valued over assertiveness. Flaunting superiority, intelligence and ability is not appreciated. People strive to project affluence and social position. Personal appearance, image and human relationships are very important.
Meeting and Greeting
- Shake hands with everyone present--men, women and children--at a business or social meeting. Shake hands again when leaving.
- Men may embrace each other when meeting (friends and family only).
- Women may kiss each other on the cheek and embrace.
Body Language
- Never touch, hug or back slap a Spaniard you do not know well, unless a friendly Spaniard touches you first.
- Generally, Spaniards stand very close when talking.
- Spaniards speak a lot with their hands. Never mimic them.
Corporate Culture
- Spaniards do not take punctuality for business meetings seriously, but expect that you will be on time; call with an explanation if you are delayed.
- Spain is not a meeting culture. Meetings are to communicate instructions or to save time.
- Spaniards will want to spend time getting to know you and establishing chemistry before doing business. Personal qualities are valued over technical ability, professionalism or competence.
- Typically, Spanish is the language of business, but most large companies conduct business in English and Spanish. You cannot expect English to be widely spoken. Check ahead to determine if an interpreter is needed.
- Spaniards' lack of trust in institutions produces a constant atmosphere of crisis and emergency.
- Spaniards like making decisions on their own. Do not impose a decision in direct language. It could be humiliating to your associates.
- The organizational chart is social, not functional. The third or fourth level down may be more powerful than those at the top.
Dining and Entertainment
- It is acceptable and common to be late by 30 minutes in southern Spain and 15 minutes in northern Spain for social meetings. Never be late for a bullfight.
- Lunches/dinners are a vital part of business used to establish a relationship, to see if the chemistry is correct and to develop trust.
- Attempt to give a toast in Spanish. Be brief when toasting. It is acceptable for women to give toasts.
- Tip everyone for everything.
- No bread and butter plate is used. Bread is set directly on the table. Restaurants generally charge for bread by the piece.
- Spaniards don't waste food. It is better to decline food rather than leave it on your plate.
Dress
- Appearance is extremely important to Spaniards. They dress elegantly, even for casual occasions.
- Dress conservatively. Avoid bright or flashy colours.
- Shoes are the most important element of dress. Shabby looking shoes can ruin a very nice outfit.
- For business, men should wear jackets and ties, even in warm weather. If the senior person takes his/her jacket off during a meeting, you may do so, too.
- Women should wear dresses, blouses and skirts.
(www.a-zofetiquette.com) (www.executiveplanet.com/business-culture-in)
8.0 References
Adler, N. J. (2001). International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. Fourth Edition, South-Western College Publishing.
Cheney, G. (1999). Values at Work: Employee Participation Meets Market Pressure at Mondragon, Cornell University Press.
Corr, D., (2004), Lecture notes.
Fukuyama, F. (1995), in Morden, T. (1999), ‘Models of national culture- a management review’, Cross-Cultural Management, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 19-41.
Hall, E.T. (1959). The silent language. New York: Fawcett Publications.
Hall, E.T. (1983). The dance of life: the other dimension of time. New York: Anchor Press.
Hall, E.T. (1989). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Press.
Herbig, P. and Jacobs, L., (1998), Culture as an explanatory variable for the Japanese innovation process, Cross-Cultural Management, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 3-28.
Hill, W.L. (2001). International Business: Competing in the Global. Marketplace, McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, G. (1983). Dimensions of national cultures in fifty countries and three regions. In J. B. Deregowski, S. Dziurawiec, & R. C. Annis (Eds.), Expiscations in cross-cultural psychology. Lisse, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlanger.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. Maidenhead, UK: McGraw-Hill.
Lewis, R. (1996), When Cultures Collide, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, London.
Mullins, L. J. (1999) Management and Organisational Behaviour. 5th Edtn. Prentice Hall. Harlow. 264-265.
Rodrigues, C. (1996). International management: a cultural approach. USA, West-publishing Company.
Trompenaars, F. and Hampden-Turner, C. (1998), The Seven Cultures of Capitalism. Piatkus, London.
Internet Resources:
9.0 Appendices
Appendix 1 - Low Power Distance
1. Moderate to cold climates
2. Survival of population more dependent on man's intervention with nature
3. More need for technology (fire, etc)
4. Historical: early legislation applied to rulers, One-child inheritance
5. More need for education of the "lower classes" (literacy, etc)
6. Greater social mobility, strong development of the Middle Class.
7. Greater National wealth
8. Wealth is widely distributed
9. Politics based on system of representation
10. Independent streak - small population
11. Historical: independence, federalism, and negotiation
12. Less centralisation of political power
13. Changing society - fast acceptance of technology
14. Children learn things their parents never did.
15. More questioning of authority in general.
Adapted from (Rodrigues, 1998) (Hofstede, 1980), (Adler, 1991)
Appendix 2 - High Power Distance
1. Tropical and sub-tropical climates
2. Survival and population growth just less dependant on intervention with
Nature (food is easy to get...)
3. Less reliance on technology
4. Historical: Early legislation not applied to rulers, Divided inheritance.
5. Less need for education of "lower classes"
6. Less social mobility, polarised society (rich - poor)
7. Less national wealth.
8. Wealth concentrated in the hands of a small "elite"
9. Political power is concentrated in a small "elite" (military, oligarch, etc)
10. Large population - little resistance to mass "integration"
11. Historical: Occupation, colonisation, and imperialism.
12. Centralisation of Political power.
13. More static societies
14. Children dependant on Parents and elders
15. Less questioning of Authority in General.
Adapted from (Rodrigues, 1998) (Hofstede, 1980), (Adler, 1991)
Appendix 3 – Power distance in Japan
Teachers file appeals over anthem
Seventy-five teachers filed appeals with the Tokyo Metropolitan Government's personnel commission Monday to nullify punishment the board of education meted out on them last week for refusing to stand and sing the national anthem at commencements.
The high school teachers, who are among 171 reprimanded, claim the principals' orders forcing them to stand and sing "Kimigayo" violate the Constitution and that it is abnormal to punish them for not standing up only one time.
Some teachers are expected to continue to refuse to stand and sing the anthem at enrollment ceremonies that will begin Tuesday.
Last Wednesday, the Tokyo board of education reprimanded the 171 teachers and refused to renew the contracts of five teachers who had been re-employed after retirement. On Monday, the board discussed similar punishment for some elementary and junior high school teachers.
Those reprimanded included a music teacher who refused to play the piano for the national anthem.
The board tightened its policy in October, requiring schools to hoist the Hinomaru flag on the stage and teachers to stand and sing the anthem facing the flag.
The tougher stance on reprimanding teachers who refuse to do so generated criticism from teachers and members of the public, who argue it violates freedom of thought and conscience as guaranteed by the Constitution.
The Hinomaru and "Kimigayo" were defined under law as Japan's national flag and anthem in 1999. But their status remains a sensitive issue due to their symbolic links to the Imperial system and Japan's militarist past.
The Japan Times: April 6, 2004
Appendix 4 – Power distance in Spain & Individualism vs. Collectivism in Spain
Let's Make a Deal! - Part 1
What you should know before negotiating
Updated August 13, 2003
- Business cards should be printed in English on one side and in Spanish on the other; you should present your card with the Spanish side facing the recipient.
- Equally it is advisable to take plenty of literature about your company to distribute and it helps to bring samples of your products and/or demonstrations of your service.
- Personal contacts are essential for business success in Spain.
- You should select your Spanish representatives with tremendous care because, once you have made your choices, it can be extremely difficult to switch to other people.
- Hierarchy and position play an important role in Spanish culture. For example, it would be frowned upon if you spent a great deal of time and attention on someone of lesser rank than you. It is in your best interests, therefore, to focus chiefly on those who would be considered your 'equals' and obviously to cultivate those you identify as key players in the decision-making process.
-
In this extremely hierarchical business culture, only the boss [popularly known as el jefe] has the authority to make decisions. Generally, subordinates are required to respect authority, follow orders, and to deal with any problems in such a way that they do not come to the attention of their superiors.
- Decision-making can be slow and tedious: various levels of management will be consulted and all aspects of your proposal will be analysed in painstaking detail. Ultimately, though, only the individual in highest authority makes the final decision. You must, therefore, understand that you will often be dealing with intermediaries but that maintaining a good relationship with these intermediaries is crucial to success.
- Most Spaniards will seek the support and approval of family, friends and colleagues before acting on their own. There seems to be an underlying belief here that a person is not an integral part of society unless he or she is recognised as part of a group, neighbourhood, town or business organisation. Consequently, there tends to be a resistance to the 'outsider' and visitors to the country are expected to overcome their 'outsider' status by fitting into a group of some kind.
- Spaniards generally expect the people with whom they are negotiating to have the authority to make the final decision.
- Rather than expecting Spaniards to conform to your way of doing things, you must make the effort to understand, if not emulate, their behaviour. This is an effective way of gaining the acceptance of your Spanish counterparts. Making the effort to adapt to their ways demonstrates your respect for their culture, and also tells others that you are adaptable.
http://www.executiveplanet.com/business-culture-in/132437583447.html
Appendix 5 – Uncertainty avoidance in Japan
Peace mission in full swing
By KEIZO NABESHIMA
The humanitarian aid and reconstruction activities of the Self-Defense Forces in Iraq have gone into full swing following the deployment of 550 ground troops in Samawah. A year after the Iraq war started, Japan has now deployed a total of about 1,000 Ground, Maritime and Air SDF personnel in the country.
This is the first time since the end of the Pacific War that Japan has deployed such a large contingent in a foreign country where conflict continues. In Iraq, where guerrilla attacks are rampant, international cooperation for peace has become a new mission for the SDF.
While visiting Tokyo late last month, Seyyid Muhammed Bahr ul-Uloom, chairman of the Iraqi Governing Council, praised Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi for his "courageous decision" to dispatch SDF troops to Iraq.
When Koizumi decided to send SDF units to Iraq, public opinion in Japan was largely against the move. He made the decision anyway to promote a strategy of strengthening the Japan-U.S. alliance. The alliance has grown stronger, thanks to personal trust between Koizumi and U.S. President George W. Bush. By overcoming the political problems connected with the SDF dispatch plan, Koizumi proved his allegiance to the alliance.
Washington appears grateful. It supported Tokyo's participation in the six-party talks on North Korea's nuclear-arms development. At two sessions of the talks, the United States even took up the abduction of Japanese nationals by North Korean agents -- over Pyongyang's objections.
Moreover, after several Chinese landed on the disputed Senkaku Islands in the East China Sea on March 25, the U.S. State Department stated that the islands are under Japanese administrative control and that the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty applies to the territory.
The Bush administration's position on the application of the treaty to the islands was a far cry from that of the Clinton administration, which remained noncommittal on the issue.
Meanwhile, the dispatch of SDF troops to Iraq has widened the scope of Japanese diplomacy, allowing the nation to improve its relations with the Middle East. Previously, Japan, which depends on the region for almost 90 percent of its oil needs, had limited political ties there. One of the few signs of involvement since 1996 has been SDF participation in U.N. peacekeeping along the Golan Heights.
Things have changed dramatically since the 9/11 terror attacks in the United States. Japan has actively participated in the reconstruction of war-torn Afghanistan, including hosting an international donor countries' conference in January 2002 on the reconstruction of Afghanistan. That led to pledges of $4.5 billion in aid, of which Japan contributed $600 million for refugee relief, public health, education and road repair work.
In Iraq, three types of activities specified for the SDF deployment program have begun. GSDF troops started pumping water from the Euphrates River late last month to supply drinking water to local people. Medical aid and repair work on schools and other public facilities have also been undertaken.
Reports from Iraq say the SDF units face excessive and far-fetched expectations from Iraqis that they will provide jobs, rebuild water-purification plants as well as keep the peace -- all of which are outside the scope of the SDF mission. Defense Agency chief Shigeru Ishiba said these problems, if not solved, could imperil the security of SDF troops. Japan, therefore, should speed up implementation of "visible" official development assistance to the area.
The government plans to give a $1.5 billion grant to Iraq this year. On March 26, the government earmarked $1.21 billion for emergency aid to Iraq, focusing on the reconstruction of infrastructure such as electric power, waterworks, sanitation, education and security.
The most serious obstacle to reconstruction aid is terrorism. Containing terrorism and rebuilding the nation are inseparable. In November, a suicide bomb attack on an Italian national police unit killed 18 Italians and nine Iraqis. Japanese diplomat Katsuhiko Oku, who visited the scene of the attack the next day, said by e-mail that the incident should strengthen "our resolve never to surrender to terrorism." Two weeks later, Oku, another Japanese diplomat and an Iraqi driver were shot to death by terrorists.
The international terrorist group al-Qaeda has threatened to attack a Japanese target because of the SDF deployment in Iraq. Terrorists could attack not only SDF units but also locations in Japan as well as diplomatic missions and companies overseas. Nevertheless, Japan must not surrender to terrorism.
Koizumi says he is ready to take responsibility if and when terrorists strike a Japanese target. Whatever happens, he adds, Japan will fulfill its responsibility to help rebuild Iraq, indicating that SDF troops will not be withdrawn even if they come under attack by terrorists. Unlike in past U.N. peacekeeping operations, SDF troops in Iraq are working in an area where conflict continues. Koizumi says he hopes the troops will accomplish their mission, which is contributing to the peace and stability of the region. The question is whether the SDF will be able to add international cooperation for peace to national defense as its main missions. The troop dispatch to Iraq is a watershed for the 50-year-old SDF.
Keizo Nabeshima, former chief editorial writer for Kyodo News, writes on political and international affairs.
The Japan Times: April 5, 2004
Appendix 6 – Uncertainty avoidance in Spain
EL PAIS
Tuesday 6th April
Appendix 7 – Individualism vs. Collectivism in Japan
Asian trio embark on quest to lead in cutting-edge tech
The Associated Press
Japan, China and South Korea will work together to develop cutting-edge technologies, including fourth-generation mobile phones, digital broadcasting, computer security and open-source software, a Japanese official said Monday.
For several months, the nations have been working on a plan to cooperate in information technologies, including future Internet systems, an official at the telecommunications ministry said on customary condition of anonymity.
At a meeting in Seoul in March, officials from the three countries agreed to share information about and work together on developing 4G mobile phones by 2010, another ministry official said. No specifics on a standard have been decided, he said.
Another meeting is scheduled in July, and an agreement on 4G phones may be discussed there, officials said.
A single global standard for 3G has yet to be established, while 4G mobile systems are still in the experimental stage.
Japan, China and South Korea have stepped up their push to pool resources on new technologies and possible common standards for the region.
The Japan Times: April 6, 2004
Appendix 8 – Masculinity vs. Femininity in Japan
Let's Make a Deal! - Part 3
What you should know before negotiating
- The Japanese will commit themselves to an oral agreement, which may be acknowledged by a nod or slight bow, rather than by shaking hands.
- Contracts can be renegotiated; in Japanese business protocol, they are not final agreements.
- It is considered polite to frequently say “I’m sorry.” For example, the Japanese will apologize for not being punctual enough, having a cold, taking you to see a disappointing movie, providing substandard hospitality [even if it was perfectly good], displaying rudeness at a previous meeting [even if they were not rude], and practically any other personal flaw. Visitors are encouraged to incorporate these kinds of remarks into their conversation.
- In Japan, there are a wide range of companies: some retain very traditional views, while others are making an effort to be more accommodating to women. Be prepared to adapt to each new situation. As a woman, you will have to work harder and be exceedingly more dedicated and flexible. But, if you succeed in establishing solid relationships, you may possibly achieve success surpassing what you could accomplish in your own country.
- You may find that some Japanese men who have not been abroad are not used to dealing with women as equals in a business setting. If you are a woman, reacting with indignation to the traditional attitudes you may encounter is not productive. Instead, the best way to overcome these obstacles is to make a concentrated effort to demonstrate your skills and professional competence; these qualities are respected whether you are male or female. Moreover, learning as much as you can about every relevant issue, as well as Japanese language and culture, can also help you in gaining acceptance.
- If you are a female business traveler, ensure that your Japanese colleagues are informed of your status as early as possible; otherwise, they may assume that you are playing only a supportive role. Try to have a male colleague introduce you with your qualifications. Moreover, whenever you are introduced, repeat your name and title.
- Even after Japanese colleagues become accustomed to a female business traveler's professional contribution, interacting with her in social situations may present another challenge. Keep in mind that Japanese men are sometimes unaccustomed to socializing with women on an equal business level. Moreover, if a woman appears overly confident, aggressive or extroverted, she may find herself in even more of a difficult position. For a woman, the best policy is to maintain a restrained, dignified manner.
http://www.executiveplanet.com/business-culture-in/131918512163.html
Appendix 9 - Masculinity vs. Femininity in Spain
Spanish Journey Part Two
6. The Mayoress of Seville
Narrator
One of the remarkable things about Seville is that it is one of the few Spanish cities that boasts a Mayoress: Soledad Becerril.
Robert Elms
What is the character of your city like?
Soledad Becerril
The character – rather than of the city – of the people, the character of the Sevillians. Its people, Seville’s, are hospitable, open and always welcoming. Historically, not just nowadays. It has always welcomed people from elsewhere, to the extent that the person from elsewhere after some time here immediately turns into a Sevillian. They adopt the customs, the lifestyle and pleasures. It is a great city on the one hand and on the other it is a city that therefore likes new things but at the same time has learnt very well how to preserve its past, learnt how to preserve traditions. It is very proud shows off a lot.
Robert Elms
What are your favourite places or things here in Seville?
Soledad Becerril
Asking that of a Mayoress is a little…! That’s an ambitious question. The city is the sum of its parts. It is the Santa Cruz quarter, yet it is the river, it is Seville of the Almohades and it is Seville of the Baroque, or Seville of the Romantics, and modern Seville as well.
Robert Elms
And Seville of 1992, modern Seville?
Soledad Becerril
The works done in ‘92 in preparation for the World Exhibition are a very important part of Seville. The works are of great significance because they changed the city's appearance. As far as the infrastructure is concerned, they have changed the city, the city has been considerably modernised.
Robert Elms
You are the first Mayoress the city has known. Is that symbolic?
Soledad Becerril
It is the first time Seville has had a Mayoress and it is a symbol. It is a symbol for many women, and it is a symbol that in Spain there are several Mayoresses in big cities, important centres. It is a symbol of how women in Spain have made strides in the last years, of how things have changed in Spain. I was the first woman to become minister in the government as well, in 1981. And that is very representative of how Spain has changed and how it continues to do so.
Narrator
The Duchess of Medina-Sidonia is head of one of the most influential families in Spain. She is a controversial figure. In the 60s she was thrown into prison and then exiled for her political opinions. Her palace holds the largest archive of historical documents in Spain.
Inka Martí
And nowadays, what role would you say the aristocracy has in Spain?
Duchess
Whatever role is given to it by others, because as it stands it truly does not have a role. Now, if we thought that certain powers, or whoever, considered that the aristocracy were faithful servants, well, maybe then it could play a role. Other than that, I think that for the sake of society it is a distinction that should be suppressed as soon as possible. It is poisonous.
Inka Martí
Do you have the most important private collection of documents in the world?
Duchess
Perhaps, we haven't had it valued, but it is.
Inka Martí
What‘s in your archives?
Duchess
The most important items are the private documents, peoples' letters, court cases, the papers that reflect accounts, that reflect the day to day. The ones that aren't court correspondence designed to be read, but rather documents that were only destined for the eyes of the people they were addressed to or the writer himself. That’s to say life in the past from the inside, that gives interest to the archives.
Inka Martí
There are also letters among the papers written by women, mostly Andalusian women.
Duchess
There are many from Andalusia, Catalan, by the way. I have many documents in Catalonian. Women knew how to write, they wrote using holographs. Some wrote very well, describing their lives. It would be interesting to demystify that past we are given by gathering together the letters and simply transcribing them, dividing them into groups and people and publishing them. I'm sorry, I don't have the money for that.
Inka Martí
Do you think women's role in Spanish society has changed?
Duchess
I think women's horizons have changed. Today access to university and certain professions is no longer as closed as it was. But to actually change most women's mentality, they would need a cultural preparation, society at large to be prepared and that has not happened.
Inka Martí
You have dedicated yourself to diving deep into Spanish history to bring the truth up to the surface.
Duchess
That was not my intention, I meant to go further, but imagine my surprise when I stumbled on the history of Spain, with all the research I've done - I have four… no, three published essays on history completed so far. I found that the documents prove the opposite to what is in the books. So that, of course, means you either repeat fables and for that I’d rather write novels, or you get to the truth of the matter!
Inka Martí
Thank you very much
Appendix 10 – Monochronic culture
School run by stock firm opens doors
OKAYAMA (Kyodo) Japan's first private school run by a stock company was inaugurated Saturday in Mitsu, Okayama Prefecture.
Asahijuku Junior High School held an admission ceremony for the first batch of 50 first-year students.
The school was founded by Asahigakuen, a legally incorporated educational institution based in the city of Okayama.
Last year, the administration of Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi gave consent to Mitsu and two other municipalities to set up schools run by stock companies.
The authorization reflects the Koizumi government's deregulatory drive to rev up slowing regional economies.
The Mitsu government invited Asahigakuen to run a school using an obsolete elementary school building whose operations had ceased due to the severe depopulation of the rural district, town officials said.
The new school will provide students with a range of innovative lessons and courses, including arts and music classes conducted in English.
The school's curriculum will not be controlled by guidelines set by the education ministry, they said.
The school will refund all tuition fees if students the school designates as capable of enrolling in a high school of their choosing fail entrance exams for that school.
The system is based on the idea that the school has the responsibility to provide instruction sufficient to produce students able to pass such entrance exams.
"We will have to brace for losses in the first three years," Asahigakuen chief Mitsuji Toriumi told reporters. "We would like to provide education so that students may grow up to be internationally competent."
The Japan Times: April 11, 2004
Appendix 11 – Stress due to monochronic culture
Kyoto firm sued over man's death from overwork
NAGOYA (Kyodo) Relatives of a loan worker at Murata Manufacturing Co. who committed suicide last year filed a damages suit Monday against the electronic components maker and its affiliate, claiming that the man's death was caused by overwork.
The parents and wife of the 32-year-old man are seeking some 141 million yen in compensation via the lawsuit, which was filed at the Nagoya District Court.
The plaintiffs claim that the man had worked from the morning until late in the evening from late October 2002, and had been urged by a doctor to cut his working hours.
The man served as an official responsible for the development of mobile phone components; he was on loan at Murata from the affiliate at the time.
The companies are accused of failing to safeguard his health, leading him to commit suicide in February last year, according to the plaintiffs.
Yukio Oshima, administrative manager at the Kyoto-based company, said, "I cannot comment on this as I have not yet read the complaint."
The Japan Times: April 27, 2004
Appendix 12 – Polychronic culture
"Tsst! You are in eSpain!"
Beyond the bullfighting (which, I was told with great conviction, is humane and deeply intertwined in Spanish culture) and the thick, acrid clouds of cigarette smoke, Spain is a fascinating place. The Spanish day starts and lasts later than ours – businesses open at 10 a.m., lunch is about 2-4 p.m. (during which time many businesses close), dinner is around 9 or 10 p.m., and the nightlife really gets going around 1 a.m. Spaniards also have a different perception of time (for those of you who took cross-cultural, they are polychronic). Start times are flexible and schedules are unrushed. One of the U.S. women was in a hurry to get something done when she was told, "Tsst! You are in eSpain!" (most Spanish-speakers pronounce words that begin with "s" as "es"). That meant she should calm down and relax; everything would get done in due time.
Since time is also non-linear in Spain, people do more than one thing at once (unlike the United States). This was especially surprising to me in stores where salespeople talk to several people at once rather than give one customer their undivided attention and taking people in turn. Another marked cultural difference is the smaller Spanish radius of personal space. Spaniards stand and sit much closer together than people in the United States. People also tend to bump into each other and push their way through crowds without saying "excuse me" (which is a shock to Americans). Beggars are also more physical – they do not hesitate to touch you (unheard of even in New York) or shove their wares into your face. (All the beggars I saw were Roma, also known as Gypsies. Not one was white.) And in an effort to keep us from getting lost, we were told that if we didn't know where to go, follow everyone else. (The great thing is, it works!) This not only shows the more relaxed "go with the flow" attitude of Spaniards, but also the more collective spirit there (rather than the U.S. need to be individuals).
Appendix 13 – Leadership in Spain
56% of Spanish Directors prefer a participative leadership style
Madrid, March 9, 2004. 56% of Spain’s directors prefer a participative style of leadership, and 75% say that they regularly, or almost always use coaching, a personalised style that focuses on employee development. This is one of the conclusions of the first study on ´Leadership from a Spanish perspective´ drafted by Instituto de Empresa and Deloitte, aimed at analysing the concept of leadership among senior management in major Spanish companies.
The report affirms that future leaders have to be goal-oriented and act as coaches, and that they must centre on developing their subordinates’ talents, equipping them with the skills and knowledge they need to work effectively and in lockstep with their teams. This new style of leadership is essential when it comes to competitiveness and organisations’ survival, explains Carlos Pastor, Director of the Centre for Global Leadership at Instituto de Empresa. He also stresses that participative leadership is not the norm among the Spanish directors who took part in the survey. Only half of survey participants almost always use this style. Pastor affirms that there is a need to adapt their style of leadership and make it more participative, a process that takes time and requires commitment from leaders.
41 % of directors stated that their favourite style of leadership is contingent reinforcement, that is to say that it rewards subordinates for their commitment and achievements. 37% use the goal-oriented style, based on meeting challenges. “Without doubt these are styles that can work well with subordinates who have the skills and knowledge needed to carry out the type of work in question. But those who need training in order to assume new responsibilities may feel frustrated and lose motivation, says Enrique de la Villa, a Partner at Deloitte, and head of human capital.
The styles least favoured by senior managers in Spain are those based on coercion, a one-way management style with little or no participation on the employee’s part and exception-based management, which means that the director only steps in to sort out mistakes.
Leadership based on experience and company size
International experience is strongly associated with the conception of leadership and management philosophy. Hence, leaders with experience outside Spain show a preference for visionary and transactional leadership styles, in keeping with the coaching concept. These directors are less directive, and also place more emphasis on objectives.
It is therefore logical that younger Spanish firms are led by directors that generally prefer to use visionary and coaching styles of leadership. Moreover, leaders of relatively new firms are better at leadership styles that are based on objectives and development. Where different sectors are concerned, the report reveals how directors in the financial sector tend to use leadership styles that are more direct, transactional and less oriented to learning. While companies in the technology sector give more importance to coaching and vision.
The study also includes an analysis of the attitudes of leaders as having a direct impact on their styles of leadership. This part of the report is the most innovative in that it includes an analysis of relations between perceptions and leadership styles, with significant implications for directors. Researchers measured the concept that leaders have of their subordinates and found that only 46% of Spanish leaders have a “good” concept of their subordinates. These leaders think, for example, that subordinates like to assume responsibilities and that they are willing to work in the companies’ interests. These leaders tend to use coaching as their preferred style of leadership. 26% of survey participants, however, have a fairly negative concept of their subordinates. They think, for example that the majority of subordinates are against assuming responsibilities or working in the companies’ interests. These leaders show a clear tendency to use directive and transactional management styles.
Finally, the study measured the degree to which leaders are oriented to development - if they value learning and development over and above achieving objectives, or if objectives are more important than development. The results of the study show clearly that leaders highly oriented to development are also most concerned about developing their subordinates, forging emotional links with them and using participative and coaching leadership styles.
Appendix 14 – Hampden-Turner, C. and Trompenaars, F. 1998
Hampden-Turner, C. and Trompenaars, F. 1998, use seven value dilemmas to illuminate the cultural differences in twelve countries.
Instead of using a questionnaire to identify these differences, they described a set of scenarios that occur in business and asked the people participating in their research to put themselves on one of the two sides of the dilemma.
Appendix 15 – Analysis of Spain and Japan
General
Japan has a highly urbanised population of approximately 127 million, with a population density of approximately 335 people per square kilometre. As 70 per cent of the country is mountainous, most of the population is located along the coastline. Over 44 per cent of the population live in the major cities of Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. The Japanese are great travellers and the young have embraced Western culture and influences such as fast food, fashion and music entertainment.
Economic
The Japanese Government has spent several hundred trillion yen on economic stimulus packages in an effort to spur a recovery. However, the success of these packages is still in doubt as stagnation continues and Japan’s banks continue to hold large non-performing loans. Recent changes that are evidence of the ‘new economy’ emerging in Japanese business practices include:
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High interest in IT-based solutions
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Demand for innovative cost effective business solutions which can include imported product and services
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Breakdown of traditional interlinked (keiretsu) business relationships
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Introduction of business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce ventures
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Speeding up of the business decision making processes
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Introduction of Western management practices
Trade and Political
- Japan is an active member of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the United Nations.
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As the largest creditor nation in the world, Japan supplies Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) to many developing countries and actively participates in humanitarian programs worldwide.
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Japan has traditionally been seen as a closed or difficult market to enter for foreign companies, and during the 1980s it was under considerable pressure (from the USA particularly), to open up its markets to foreign competition.
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Acceptance of foreign imports is increasing as Japanese consumers demand greater variety and value for money.
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At times, Japan’s bi-lateral relationships with several nations have been strained for historical and present reasons (Iraq, North Korea and War on Terrorism). However, concerted efforts by each government are assisting in building strong relationships for the new century in the region.
ANALYSIS OF SPAIN
Spain has a population of approximately 41 million. The capital is Madrid and other cities include Barcelona, Valencia, Sevilla, Zaragoza and Malaga.
Spain consists of 17 autonomous communities and Castilian Spanish is the official language. However, six of the 17 regional communities have other official languages and as a result, Spain has five official languages - Castillian Spanish, Catalan, Basque, Galician and Valencian. English is less widely spoken than in other major European countries and it is estimated that as few as one in four Spaniards have a good command of English.
Economy
Spanish economy has experienced good economic growth and has shown to be one of the best performing economies in the European Union (EU). Growth has occurred as the result of good economic management, lower taxes, employment growth and low interest rates, which have facilitated consumer and business spending. Spain’s key sectors in order of importance are services (tourism), agriculture/fishing, industrial (textiles and apparel production, automotive, and chemicals) sectors. Spanish companies are among the largest investors in South America.
Trade and Political
Spain is keen to become a global player and has recently implemented a strategic plan aimed at encouraging Spanish businesses to focus on the Asian region. It is hoped that this plan will help Spain develop new markets away from Spain’s traditional markets of the European Union, USA and South America.
Spanish relationships with the US are very strong the moment and they have been linked with various programs like the War on Terrorism in Iraq; this has led to strained relationships with different groups causing Spain to be attacked via bombings. In effect services and tourism went down. Also there are differing fractions in Spain, which are also potentially hostile. However this has not damped their spirits.
