Additionally ‘Scientific Management’ gives the firm opportunity to create economies of scale, stressing efficiency and the need to reduce waste i.e. lean production, which of course encourages the firm to be more socially responsible. Experts believe if you quarter a manufacturer’s lead time, productivity will be doubled and costs reduced by 20% (The Manufacturing Institute) this would lead to strong competitive advantage. For an effective lean manufacturing process the following must be present:
- Total quality focus
- Total employee involvement
- Structured, flow manufacturing
- Good supplier and buyer partnership
- Continuous improvement
For these aspects to translate into successful lean production it would be supportive for goals to be set for individuals and the firm as a whole to ensure that they are streamlined towards the same result, as can be seen in the situation for the discussion in section 4 (both employees and management strive towards collective goals). For any group to be successful it is crucial how they behave as a group as equally as they do as individuals, this guides our discussion into the role of behaviour modification and its importance in any collective structure.
2 – Behaviour Modification
A behaviour modification programme in trying to make students more productive in study two will involve the direction of behaviour via the focus of attention on the students’ collective behaviour. Behaviour modification arises from the behavioural theories contemplated primarily by Pavlov (1903) and Skinner (1957); a variety of factors are given or taken out of the situational context in order to mould, and hence ‘modify’ behaviour towards specific qualities favourable for the organisation. Details of these behavioural theories are beyond this report, but for our purposes, the methods in which behaviour modification (OBMod henceforth) is used in organisations includes the utilisation of reinforcement regimes (positive or negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction) in addition to reinforcement schedules (continuous, fixed or variable ratios and fixed or variable intervals), concerning frequency of the reinforcement.
Srijayan N Iyer (2006) identifies what is needed for a successful OBMod programme namely identification, measure, analysis, intervention and evaluation with the implication that following these five steps will lead to the behaviours desired. Nevertheless despite this view the behaviours identified as follows for such a programme is subject to limitation, discussed later.
For poor lecture attendance a suitable regime may be one of negative reinforcement where negative factors are taken away, for example a system of blackboard learning would provide the students with an alternative method of getting the same information available in the lectures without having to attend the lecture itself. Hence the removal of blackboard will persuade students to attend the lectures and display a greater degree of positive behavior, although admittedly the reinforcement schedule needed for this to be of success would need to be continuous to keep attracting students towards lecture attendance. Indeed, this highlights the problem with OBMod also identified by Buchanan and Huczynski (2004)in that it is highly dependent on there being a link between the reinforcement and the behavior, i.e. this intervention would depend on the reason for poor lecture attendance being the availability of blackboard; if not, the link collapses and the intervention i.e. negative reinforcement fails.
The students’ late and noisy arrival to lectures may well benefit from a process of shaping using both positive and negative reinforcement. According to Skinner (1957), shaping requires chosen behaviors to be selectively reinforced in a way to achieve a pattern of desired behavior (in this case, quiet and orderly arrival). In applying this concept, Lesley could provide the opportunity for students to achieve a reward (positive reinforcement) and isolate noisy students in a full lecture theatre for embarrassment (negative reinforcement). However, the latter risks going on the verge of punishment which is generally accepted (Nord, 1970) as not being effective in changing behaviour. Of course Skinner himself has critiqued Pavlov by suggesting that shaping does not change the behaviour itself rather, the timing of the behaviour is changed. If true, for our situation the students’ inclination towards late and noisy behaviour will not be modified rather they will just take greater care in not displaying this behaviour towards Lesley’s lectures. Arguably this is still an acceptable outcome.
The possibility of punishment for lack of tutorial preparation on a fixed interval schedule may persuade the students to ensure they have done the work required of them but this again is subject to the problem described above (positive reinforcement may work better). Again the link between the reinforcement and behaviour is imperative, as the behaviour may be due to external factors not contemplated by the reinforcement. For example these may include heavy workload from other modules, anxiety as to their future and also financial worries; the suggestion here then is that students themselves need to understand their own behaviours and underlying reasons to enhance performance.
For the next section of this report there is a discussion on motivating in terms of giving feedback based on work by Herzberg (1959) where Pavlov even recognised that this would play the part of positive reinforcement in trying to get students to contribute more in tutorials, where their lack of doing so could be attributed to shyness. Another view may be the area of communication where Larsson et al. (2009) have found that three successful organisations, amongst other things thrived on effective communication for their success. Hence, rather than the introduction of a positive reinforcement for better performance, methods to increase communication may prosper; methods through goal setting (Locke, 1968) may be employed in accordance with the process suggested by Sutherland et al. (1995) where, in the context of safety in organisations it was shown that goal-setting lead to a progressively higher quality of performance. Consequently students, by setting progressive goals move towards redefined behaviours beneficial for them as well as Lesley and may produce better results than an OBMod programme.
The latter suggestion is pivotal on a point raised previously on external reasons for behaviour and this is where ‘socialisation’ proves a good alternative to OBMod. Yet again based on the work of a psychologist, Bandura (1977, 1986) proposed conformity of roles by which the individual is influenced to behave similarly to others who display desirable behaviours. Applicable to both the next and last sections of this report, latterly where the group’s behaviour may be so explained, utility of this theory would not require intervention like OBMod but Lesley could initiate a ‘buddy scheme,’ pairing one of these students with another who displays desirable behaviours, as well as avoiding the problems of OBMod (the necessity of continuous reinforcement, if withdrawn, undesirable behaviours are once again displayed) the student can come to terms with resolving external factors as well as actually modifying own behaviour without an interventionist programme.
Referring above to a ‘reward’ as positive reinforcement, we in fact evoke Taylor (1911) in assuming money motivates although in this context this would depend on personality types as described by Jung (1970). This in turn raises questions as to whether instead of trying to modify students; their lack of positive behaviour may be a result of Lesley’s approach in effect being their manager. She may have indulged in ‘Fundamental Attribution Error’ (Heider, 1958) where she may have wrongly attributed the negative behaviour solely to students’ inherent behaviour. Another determinant of their behaviour maybe the management style of Lesley. In relation to McGregor’s (1960) ‘X and Y Theories’ of management , a Theory Y approach may need to be adopted in order to see changes in behaviour which are more productive. The manager is seen as ‘fun’ and employees (students) show a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity and we can see how this would link in with their apparent ‘creative’ personalities. This point leads the report into an extensive argument of modern motivational theories and their relevance in the workplace, using task three as an example.
3- Motivation
It is of the opinion of motivational theorist Taylor (1911) that money is the prime motivator. This appears to also be the opinion of the firms’ manufacturing director in study three, who does not understand why his staffs are unresponsive to his efforts of benefitting them with:
- High pay in comparison to other employers in the region
- Fringe benefits
- Good working condition
Herzberg’s (1959) research however shows that extrinsic factors such as these are merely ‘hygiene factors’; that is, that they do not motivate workers but de-motivate them if they are not present. When analysing the case study this theory explains the reasoning behind the staffs lack of motivation, and is therefore a theory we agree with; however only to an extent, and the more problematic issue is how the staff are treated as one, as opposed to individuals, meaning they are not receiving fair and appropriate treatment.
According to the work of Vroom (1964) the combination of an individual’s perceived value of a particular outcome (valence), their perceived probability that effort will result in good performance (expectancy) and, that good performance will lead to valued rewards (instrumentality), determines one’s strength of motivation. Therefore for an individual’s motivation to be high, they must see productive work as the path to achieving their goals. The equation F = E x V x I (in Vroom’s expectancy theory) shows how if just one variable is low, or even negative, then motivation (F) will be zero. For motivation to be strong, each of the variables must be positive and high. If managers of the firm take the process model into account, it should encourage them to take each individuals needs more seriously and as more of a priority; superiors must realise how fundamental workers are and how they should be valued. The current ‘payment by results’ system is one which is directly linked to output and thus theoretically should increase overall productivity; however it does unfortunately mean that productivity is not consistent across board and some members of staff abuse the system, acting as ‘free riders ‘ and surviving off the work of others. This was particularly apparent in the interviews with some of the staff, which showed their expectancy and instrumentality levels are awfully low. Theoretically it is not the system itself which appears to be hindering efficiency and disgruntling the workers, but the approach some of them take towards the system. This of course causes animosity and tension amongst staff, which in turn dissatisfies their ‘social needs’ (Maslow, 1943). Maslow believed if one level is unobtainable in the hierarchy it prevents an individual’s motivational requirements advancing, remaining at that particular level.
However according to the more recent theorist Alderfer (1969), these social needs being dissatisfied does not mean that one cannot miss out a level and advance onto esteem and self-actualisation needs. This theory of course is dependent on what is considered most important to the worker; someone who is more socially driven may find it difficult to get past such a hurdle; whereas a more independent, achievement motivated person would find the situation easy to ignore and continue their progression. We must analyse what the staffs’ general attitude is in the workplace i.e. affiliation driven, power driven etc, to enable us to make the necessary judgments about how to motivate them effectively and what systems should be enforced.
The work of Herzberg (1966) acknowledges people are motivated by job content as opposed to organisational content; that is to say, they focus on intrinsic rewards such as self- growth, advancement and achievement as opposed to extrinsic rewards such as pay, working conditions and company policy. This outlines the focal problems for the firm, as they are concentrating on the extrinsic rewards they make available to their staff as opposed to intrinsic rewards. It must be noted however, these theories are Western theories of motivation; the need for achievement is more prominent in the Western, rather than Eastern societies for whom a stable socialising environment is a bigger motivational factor (Whiting and Whiting 1975). Perhaps, the firm needs to focus on individual motivation needs rather than applying the same motivation solution to all employees?
For the firm to reach maximum efficiency possible and utilise staff to their greatest potential, the manufacturing manager needs to know how to entice staffs’ cooperation and direct their performance towards achieving the organisations goals and objectives; therefore he needs to take a more ‘Theory Y’ (McGregor, 1960) approach to the management of his staff. There are numerous systems and objectives he needs to enforce in order to gain maximum efficiency from the labour force; as below:
- Introduction of personal goals for every member of staff
- Improve communication between levels of staff i.e. managers and factory workers
- Create more opportunities for staffs personal development
- Rectify current reward scheme, making it more translucent and aimed towards individuals rather than a group
- Make work itself less monogamous for staff
If enforced appropriately the introduction of personal goals for staff would allow them to feel a sense of self worth and value to the company; it should help them to see their contribution and that their individual efforts are fundamental to the success of the firm; hopefully this should give them the impetus to work hard. According to Goal Setting Theory (Locke, 1968) staff members set with specific quantitative goals achieve the highest; goals should be challenging but realistic and superiors should give regular feedback to ensure progress. If the manager or group leader sets individuals goals aptly then effectively all levels of the firm would be working together to achieve a common goal. Elton Mayo (1933) suggested that workers gain satisfaction from their freedom and control over the working environment, therefore it could be even more effective to encourage participation in setting their own goals and targets. Mayo further suggested that workers’ motivation is affected by the degree of interest shown in them by their superiors and positive communication between them influences morale and output; this effect is known as the ‘Hawthorne effect’. We suggest superiors should therefore make an effort to take interest in the wellbeing of staff on a regular basis, encouraging them to feel a sense of belonging, allowing them to keep track and monitor staffs’ productivity.
As part of enhancing staffs’ performance, managers need to ensure there are opportunities for staff to develop, and thus strive towards self actualisation (Maslow, 1943). It will not only benefit the firm in terms of staffs’ productivity increasing, but a more skilled and educated worker is far more valuable to the firm. Overall this would encourage higher efficiencies, and continuous development and improvement. A rigid system of recognition and reward needs to be enforced so that each member of staff is recognised and treated as an individual; currently every member of staffs’ productivity and skill level is uniform to management due to the unfairness and density of the system. It is doubtful workers see the point in working hard and achieving targets set, if no personal recognition or reward is available. According to Maslow this ‘thwarting of needs’ causes staff to be stressed and thus, it is impossible for them to be motivated. Staffs not only need to see that the work they are doing is fundamental to their professional success, but that they are also appreciated and valued as an individual member of the workforce, not just another face on the factory floor. Such treatment should help a person to satisfy their ‘esteem needs’, developing a stable and complimentary self- evaluation derived from their capability, respect and value acknowledged by others. The firm must ensure the new system not only allows individuals to be seen by management, but also guarantees high productivity. We suggest a system focusing on performance as opposed to piece-rate; a piece rate related system may encourage them to compromise quality for quantity to maximise their rewards. A balanced system must be devised to ensure maximum output for the highest of quality.
To ensure motivation and interest is maintained consistently we further suggest an arrangement of job enrichment. It would allow workers to further enrich themselves and an ‘opportunity to use their ability’ (Herzberg, 1966); it would increase the challenge and limit the boredom, thus hopefully stimulating workers. Management must be aware however that productivity may be compromised as job specialisation is reduced and workers have to train in more areas as opposed to marvelling one. Nevertheless we must be aware when making these adjustments that not all needs are the same in every worker. The mix of motivational needs characterises a person’s style of working and behaviour. In order to satisfy all types of workers management should provide a balanced working environment to ensure that each member of staff is satisfied and motivated. As briefly mentioned before, there are three groups of people: achievement motivated (‘n-ach’), authority motivated (‘n-pow’) and affiliation/ socially motivated (‘n-affil’) (McClelland, 1953); the following opportunities and arrangements should therefore be available:
- Challenging projects with reachable goals
- A cooperative working environment
- The opportunity to manage others in a team
4- Group
Regarding teamwork, The Hawthorne studies (Mayo, 1933) concluded there are both formal and informal groups at work. The induction process at Imago in study four tries to integrate both together and create an informal environment around a formal setting. Frank’s preconception is based on his perceptual set gained from past experiences assumed to be from previous jobs or stereotypes. At Imago the informal induction shows the company is one based on social motivation and the Goal Setting Theory (Locke, 1968) argues that the employees strive to obtain goals in order to satisfy their desires. The reason surrounding the informality is to try and integrate Frank into the company as quickly as possible and make him feel comfortable. This may or may not achieve the best results from him but the case study is ambiguous as the precise job being undertaken isn’t specified. However, as informal groups start to form, employees could find themselves alienated, damaging company performance. A formal induction into the company would make employees feel part of a working environment as this approach is forceful rather than friendly. Formal group creation within the workplace would be easier as a result but has problems; “team projects can be plagued with many types of dysfunctional behaviour that can reduce team performance” (Ferrante et al, 2006, pg.788).
In this company structure many employees will desperately try to feel a sense of belonging and fulfil their social needs (Maslow, 1943). This is due to the informality of the situation at Imago. McGregor (1960) stated that there are two conflicting assumptions managers make about their employees. ‘Theory Y’ states people can achieve their own goals and management is responsible for productive enterprise (Sergiovanni, 1993). In the study, managers can be seen to have adopted this method. This contrasts with the motivational case study where the manager is very much a ‘Theory X’ type of person, very controlling of his employees. However, McGregor’s theory isn’t clear, as managers can be part ‘Theory X and ‘Y’. This seems like the best outcome because a relaxed manager who respects employees and has control over the workplace should give the best results. Imago appears to be a friendly place to work adopting the Equity Theory (Adams, 1965); equally treated employees will cause motivation to increase. Personal experience working as a volunteer in a charity shop depicted that employees become less motivated if a hierarchical structure is adopted by the manager. Individual morale weakens as intimidation by other employees occurs.
An informal approach can prove to be ineffective as is evident in the study where they have overlooked the law and as a consequence had their image tarnished. Workers have a sustained motivation and are somewhat ‘indoctrinated’ through skilful manipulation by the PR department. The court case can be evidence against the theory that employees’ main motive is money (Taylor, 1911). After the incident there is a sustained motivation to work for the company. Frank’s actions are to do anything as long as it is good for the company rather than acting for money) and this can be seen as a general viewpoint from all employees as it seems that they act together in their social groupings. On the other hand, this can be criticised as most workers follow their own, unique agenda, according to Herzberg’s Hygiene Theory of Motivation (1959), job enrichment comes from achievement, recognition and responsibility whilst job dissatisfaction arises from salary and company policy. Concluding that every worker is different can be supported by the ‘Expectancy Theory’ (Vroom, 1964). Vroom found each worker has a dissimilar attitude to work, with their needs and goals differing. Whilst evaluating the case study, it seems that only few employees can be blamed for the breach of copyright; it is arguable their main motive was money (Taylor, 1911).
The employees reacted in such a way as to show that incidents like this may occur again, the undesired behaviour will stop but only for a certain time. If it is true that some employees’ main motive is money then this is all the more likely, as the objective of seeking a higher return may trigger problems like this once again.
We now move to the disadvantages of group dynamics.
‘Group development involves the overcoming of obstacles to valid communication among the members’ (Bennis et al, 1956, pg.415). As time progresses, groups, both formal and informal, will reach different stages in group development. The group begins with formation and finishes with adjourning. Within the group however, individuals will have different roles to fill. According to Belbin’s theory (1981), there are nine team roles each specific to a particular job and will be decided on the basis of past experiences in the labour force as well as ability. However, when being part of a group, problems can occur. Max Ringelmann (1913) concluded from his studies (later established as ‘social loafing’) that individuals exert less effort when part of a group than when working alone (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2004). Solutions to this include rewarding contributions to group activities and to make the work more involving. However, the lack of effort in a group situation at work may not be due to social loafing but to the inherent psychological process of ‘deindividuation’. The sense of anonymity (Le Bon, 1908) and loss of self awareness (Hampton, 1999) causes people in the group to feel as though even if they do exert the same effort and enthusiasm as they would individually, it will not be appreciated on its individual effort.
Furthermore, the idea of ‘Groupthink’ (Janis, 1982) states that members of groups feel pressure to conform to each other and a sense of unanimity is created. What this means is that any opinion or action undertaken by a member will be greeted with a sense of agreement from other members, however wrong it may be. The case study exemplifies this with the court case as it appears no one speaks up after the incident for a change of structure within the company to prevent future occurrences of law breaking. No one is blamed for the event, showing a sense of ‘rationalization’ as all the employees support each others’ interpretations of the event, coming within the following definition: “The symptoms of groupthink arise when the members of decision-making groups become motivated to avoid being too harsh in their judgements of their leaders’ or colleagues’ ideas” (Janis, 1971, pg 84). Individuals at Imago may fear expulsion from social groups if they were to act upon the outcome of the court case. Consequently, the incident is covered up in the form of social trips to the pub.
Being seen as normal by anyone is an integral part of most people’s lives and conforming to what are known as ‘group norms’ are an essential part of it. “Group norms are the informal rules that groups adopt to regulate and regularize group members’ behaviour” (Feldman, 1984, pg 47) and their existence is supported by psychological research (Asch, 1951). Here, Imago has certain social and formal normalities in place; such as customers being at the forefront and employees being committed to their every need and want. Social normalities that exist at Imago include going to pubs and restaurants as well as the informality surrounding the company. This informality has produced the norm of going to the pub as stated by Feldman who says, “If the work group feels that management is antagonistic, group norms that inhibit or impair group performance are much more likely to develop” (Feldman, 1984, pg 47). Group performance in relation to formal work activities will decline as social activities that are normalities increase.
Hence, although for now, the productivity of the employees seems satisfactory for Imago, the informalities may have a detriment to group performance in the long run.
Conclusion
As we have seen then, many organisational situations, whether it is at a factory or a university, can be analysed and accounted for by the traditional theories so proposed from Maslow, Taylor, McGregor and the like. The problem though is that many factors in an organisation do not have their explanations rooted in just one theory; in the third section we saw that the manager had various options to address motivation. This was due to contradictory theorems on what motivates employees. Perhaps the key then is to adopt these theories as suited to the particular organisation in question? In so doing these theories are still applicable to today’s organisations but do not follow a strict contingent approach and so accounting for wider factors not contemplated by each individual theory. Indeed maybe the area of organisational misbehaviour needs to be addressed deeper to improve efficiencies in organisations.
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