The family stress model, developed by Conger and colleagues (e.g., Conger & Elder, 1994; Conger et al., 1990, 2002; Lorenz et al., 1994), suggests that economic pressure increases spouses' psychological distress. The family's low income and daily economic difficulties (inability to pay bills or buy food or clothing) provoke sadness, pessimism about the future, and anger. As spouses become more emotionally distressed, they tend to interact with one another in a more irritable and less supportive way, thus increasing the level of marital conflict. Moreover, when confronted with increased economic pressure, families isolate themselves from extended family and friends. However, spouses who receive social support from family and friends are able to better manage their situation and provide support to each other.
The pathways linking economic pressure and marital conflict are complex, with psychological functioning and social support being intervening variables (e.g., Conger & Elder, 1994; Conger et al., 2002; McLoyd, 1990). Stress, anger, frustration, and loss of control as a result of inadequate financial resources are associated with elevated depressive symptoms (Conger et al., 2002; McLoyd, 1990) and with marital relationships characterized by negative content (criticism) and negative affect (anger; Conger et al., 2002; Lorenz et al., 1994).
Scholars have found a strong link between depression and marital conflict in samples of married couples, with negative mood positively related to irritable or hostile behavior between partners (Conger et al., 1990, 2002). Some prospective studies suggest that, among certain individuals, marital conflict is a significant predictor of depression (e.g., O'Leary, Christian, & Mendell, 1994); conversely, other studies have shown that spousal depression can have a negative impact in terms of marital conflict (Coyne, Thomson, & Palmer, 2002).
Research on the role of social support suggests that, in stressful situations, people reach out to their friends for support (e.g., Wheaton, 1985). However, some scholars have found that families faced with increased levels of economic pressure isolate themselves from their environments (e.g., Lorenz et al., 1994). There is consensus regarding the beneficial effects of perceived social support in reducing depression and marital conflict (e.g., Cutrona, 1996; Pasch & Bradbury, 1998; Procidano & Heller, 1983). Perceived social support refers to subjective appraisals that a person makes about the amount and quality of support he or she receives from others (Procidano & Heller, 1983). It is defined as the extent to which an individual believes that his or her needs for support, information, and feedback are fulfilled (Procidano & Heller, 1983). Behaviors such as relying on family or friends for financial and emotional help and sharing emotions and thoughts are considered to be indicative of received social support. Barrera (1986) suggested that social support received from immediate and extended family members contributes positively to enhancing the quality of the marital relationship by lowering levels of conflict and promoting closeness. There is evidence that availability of social support decreases marital conflict indirectly by improving psychological functioning (Procidano & Heller, 1983).
As mentioned, our focus was on the impact of economic pressure on family life in Romania. Although other factors in the Romanian environment (e.g., neighborhoods and government) are also relevant to consider in a study on family functioning, this investigation is timely and important given the widespread economic deprivation and pressure facing Romanian families. The conceptual model of the impact of economic pressure on family functioning proposed here has not been examined within the Romanian population. In this investigation, economic pressure was conceptualized as the inability of earning family members to obtain material resources to meet the family's needs (Conger & Elder, 1994). Mothers' perceptions of their family's difficulties in paying bills (e.g., for food, electricity, and gas), having to borrow money to meet family needs, and having no money left over at the end of the month are considered appropriate indicators of economic pressure within the Romanian economic context. Marital conflict was defined as high levels of disagreement, stressful and hostile interactions between spouses, disrespect, and verbal abuse (Buehler et al., 1998). Depression was conceptualized as feelings of frustration, sadness, demoralization, loneliness, and pessimism about the future (Radloff, 1977). Symptoms such as restless sleep and poor appetite are considered behavioral indicators of depression. As described, perceived social support was defined as a person's subjective appraisal regarding the amount and quality of support he or she receives from others (Procidano & Heller, 1983).
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