Initially, Saussure defined two ways in which signs, or units of meaning, can be organised into codes. He coined the term paradigm to refer to a sign that forms a member of a defining category, (Chandler, 1995), a set of signs from which the one to be used is chosen. The set of shapes for road signs, as one example, forms a paradigm, as does the set of symbols that may be found within each shape (Fiske, 1990. p.56). Saussure further used the term syntagm to refer to the orderly combination of interacting signs with a meaningful whole, (Chandler, 1995), the message into which the chosen signs are combined. Fiske summarises this distinction by observing that all messages involve an amount of selection, (from the paradigm), and combination, (into a syntagm).
Semiotic analysis further begins to expand into a terminological distinction between two different types of meaning. Denotation is the term used when dealing with the 'first order' of signification generated by the signifier and the signified, (Chandler, 1995), the initial, common-sense and obvious meaning of the sign, (Fiske, 1990. p.85).
Hall, (cited in Chandler, 1995), regards this as the 'literal' meaning of a sign. Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the 'second order' of signification. Hall views this as the 'associative' meaning, since it describes the interaction that occurs when a sign meets the feelings or emotions of the users and the values of their culture (Fiske, 1990. p.86).
Based on the ideas of Pierce, the term 'connotation' can be further divided into three more subtle types of sign:
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iconic sign, as one that resembles the signified
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symbolic sign, as one depending on individual connotation
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indexical sign, as one having associations and inherent connections.
In attempting to effectively illustrate the difference between denotation and connotation, Barthes, (1977), argues that the distinction between the two is clear in medium of photography. He sees denotation as the mechanical reproduction on film of the object at which the camera is pointing. He sees connotation, on the other hand, as the individualised aspect of the process - the selection of what to include in the frame, the use of focus, camera angle, lighting etc. Basically, denotation becomes the term for what is being photographed, while connotation refers to how it is being captured on film (Fiske, 1990. p.86).
Finally it is essential to be aware of the concept of codes as a set of principles that are dynamic. Codes are difficult to perceive because they are characteristically pervasive, specific and clear-cut, to a point where they are almost invisible (Boyd-Barrett, 1987. p.150). They are historically and socio-culturally situated, and further divide into two sub-categories - the broadcast code, in which the audience is wider and cliché is more obviously employed, and the narrowcast code, in which the audience is more limited since the principles used are more subtle (Chandler, 1995). Intertextuality, a concept first introduced by the post-structuralist Julia Kristeva, (Chandler, 1995), is also a consideration, since it is the norm that media texts should exist in relation to others. It is therefore reasonable, as Thomas Sebeok suggests, accepting the value of semiotics as:
“The pivotal branch of the integrated science of communication ... concerned with the formulation and encoding of messages by sources, the transmission of these messages through channels, the decoding and interpretation of these messages by destinations, and their signification.” (in Blonsky, 1985. p.451)
For the rest of this assignment I will be analysing the compact disc ‘Mouth to Mouth’ by Rory McLeod.
Rory McLeod is an ex-circus clown and fire-eater who became a professional busker. He has, and still does, travel the globe recording his experiences through his music. Many see him as a socio-political activist, who, through his music, inspires the listener to challenge their own inequalities, raise awareness and relate their own experiences to those being heard while accompanying him on his journey.
‘Mouth to Mouth’ is his sixth album containing 28 tracks over two compact discs. The style of music varies from a beautiful mix of tender love songs, powerful political messages and everything in between. (Byron Shire Echo, 2001).
His typical audience would be those who have an interest in politically motivated music such as Billy Bragg, Andy White and Benjamin Zephaniah. Through his music he tackles relationships and social issues both local and foreign and challenges the oppression faced by his subjects. He shares his own experiences of love and heartache that become familiar to a listener who has experienced finding love, sharing love and losing love. His style of music notation varies from gentle ballads to energetic European Folk, from Middle Eastern to South American influences utilising different and unorthodox instruments to convey his expressions.
The cover of the compact disc shows Rory lying with a baby, their mouths sharing the same apple. The title ‘Mouth to Mouth’ denotes the giving of life as in cardio pulmonary resuscitation. The apple, bright red in colour, could symbolise the first food that tempted and was shared and eaten by Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. The writing on the cover and the background of the compact discs show images of a veined leaf also symbolising natural life. Feminist theorists could convey the image is that of the dominant male providing food for his young.
Rory’s image is that of an un-groomed male. His hair long, wavy and un-styled, as free as the wind in which he travels.
This could signify to the reader a traveller who would rather take time in constructing and conveying his message in an artistic manner than take materialistic pride in his appearance. It is unimportant to him to be attractive within the eyes of the media as it is the stereotypical media view that is being challenged within some of his works.
The cover contains an informative booklet containing a bibliography of performers and the instruments used, various photographs, a history of the recordings, contact details, bibliographical notes for the song ‘What Jesus Would Do’ and most importantly the lyrics for each song.
Traditionally when hearing a song the listener often tends to differentiate between words and music, even though they hear them at the same time. Having been socialised into modern listening practices most people can straight away disentangle the lyrics from the melodic and rhythmic lines, interpret the words and compare the meaning by the musical sounds by which it is accompanied. The listener may disregard or actively listen for the words, feel how they combine with the music and still only hear musical sound. Rory McLeod rewrites the norm of song writing by marrying the two together. He uses his voice as an instrument and makes his instruments speak. His lyrics not only signify a story but also invite the listener to accompany him on the same journey, visualising every step, entrapping the listener to discover the true meaning of the song.
Meaning is made through acts of interpretation, in encounters between texts and subjects in specific contexts. It is through hearing sounds that their meanings are produced. Listening practices are not simple reproduction of encoded meanings but a highly productive form of consumption, producing impressions, emotions, social relations and meaning.
“Popular music’s textuality is comprised of sounds, words, images, and movement in a rather complex manner” (Shepherd, 1999. p.174)
As stated previously Rory McLeod expresses himself by using a variety of uncommon instruments such as harmonica, spoons, banjo, tap shoes, trombone, finger symbols and bottle-neck-guitar to name but a few. The untrained listener may listen with intrigue at the unfamiliar sounds being played to them enhancing the mystery of what is to unfold through the musical journey. The way he encompasses these unique sounds in his music does not distract the listener from the message being conveyed but seems to build upon the passion of his texts.
His lyrics are not in the usual rhyming norm of most songs trying to find the next word that will relate in sound to the previous. He has a message to get out and if need be will force the words into the musical melody if necessary.
"In songs, words are the signs of a voice. A song is always a performance and song words are always spoken out, heard in someone's accent. Songs are more like plays than poems; song words work as speech and speech acts, bearing meaning not just semantically, but also as structures of sound that are direct signs of emotion and marks of character. Singers use non-verbal as well as verbal devices to make their points ..." (Frith, 1988. p.120)
Psychological approaches to the semiotics of meaning often construct musical meaning as a personal, emotional response, which can only be studied experimentally – for instance by having experimental subjects respond to musical stimuli in terms of a choice of adjectives. (Nielson, 1989; Imberty, 1976). Although the quality of music is one of its most important characteristics, this approach denies that music is also capable of realising other kinds of meaning. McLeod tries to inform the listener of atrocities that are hidden or only vaguely reported so as to extend the importance of the issue to a wider global audience. Music makes us capture what are in themselves non-emotional meanings in an emotional way. It binds us effectively to these meanings and makes us identify with them. This process in which the ideological power of music is vested is of course all the more effective if we are denied access to conscious knowledge of just what it is that we are emotionally identifying with. If the listener listens just for entertainment value then the meanings could be lost by any distractions around them.
Ever since the beginnings of opera, around 1600 in Italy, music has increasingly been used as a means of representation rather than interaction, for instance to signify the essential qualities of characters and settings in a dramatic context. This has been achieved by not only imitating natural sounds and speech patterns but also by the use of connotative musical signifiers. The meaning attached to the use of a particular instrument may well derive from a system or convention internal to Western music, but it may also derive from a source outside the music from which the instrument is taken. McLeod’s music works not only with the connotations of instruments but also borrows musical genres, tones and rhythmic patterns from other music.
Bibliography
Barthes, R. (1977). Image-Music-Text. London: Fontana
Blonsky, M. (1985). On Signs - A Semiotic Reader. Oxford: Blackwell
Boyd-Barrett, O. & Braham, P. (1987). Media, Knowledge And Power. London: Croom Helm/Open University
Byron Shire Echo. (09/01/2001). Accessed at: http://www.rorymcleod.com/albums/mouth.htm
Chandler, D. (1995). Semiotics For Beginners. Accessed at: http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/semiotic.html
Fiske, J. (1990). Introduction to Communication Studies (2nd Edition). London:Routledge
Frith, S. (1988). Music for Pleasure. Essays in the Sociology of Pop. Cambridge: Polity Press
Imberty, M. (1976). Sgnification and Meaning in Music. Montreal: Monographie de semiologie et d’analyses musicales
Nielsen, F. (1989). “Musical ‘Tension’ and Related Concepts.” Basic Concepts of Musical Signification. Berlin: Moulton
Shepherd, J. (1999). Key Terms in Popular Music and Culture. Oxford: Blackwell
