Many definitions have shown that there are three interdependent areas of sustainable development environmental, economic and social. In 1987 it was given by Barbier as three interlocking circles as shown below:
Fig 1.0 The objectives of sustainable development (Source: Barbier, 1987)
The major aim of sustainable development is to fully utilise the goals all three models shown which is given by the intersection of these circles. Each of the models identifies the motives behind them as given in the figure above. For Starsky and Watford (2001), for instance sustainable development is moral concept, with a need to define a ‘fair and just’ growth. The ideas given by 18th and 19th century economics as stated by authors such as Rostow (1960) was very important in the growth of thinking in this time. Rostows ideal of the linear stages of economics development as shown below:
Fig 1.1 The stages of economic development as modelled by Rostow (Source: Rostow, 1960)
The ideas of Rostow were mainly outlined immensely more on the experiences and historic background of the more developed regions of the world and societies it was more less of a Eurocentric viewpoint, it was proposed that by the way of attaining a critical ‘take off’ stage in levels of savings and investment, the advantages of development and traits of modernisation would definitely reach the heart of the less developed regions.
Instead of looking at the US and Europe as a remedy for the issues of the developing world, dependency theorist took the roles played by these regions as the source of the problems that is in actively generating the problems of underdevelopment. To put into use Frank’s terminology, development and underdevelopment were two sides of the same coin. The satellite regions are integrated into the world system by processes of unequal exchanges with the metropolitan entities as shown below in the illustration. In consequence the more involved they are in such processes the more reduced the likelihood of development.
Fig 1.2 The Frank model of underdevelopment (Source: Corbridge, 1987).
Principles of Sustainable Development
The debate of sustainability is often portrayed as a conflict between economic activity and the environment like it is possible to achieve one without the other, but this is mistaken most of the time. The condition of the environment as well as economic activity both work vis-a-vis to promote quality of life. Most of the time the improvement of the environment and economic investment is crucial and are both important, what is more important are the decisions made throughout the society should be reached at all times with regard to the environmental impact it will cause.
Several forms of economic developments generally make demands on the environment. Most of these developments make use of natural resources which are in most cases very limited in their quantity and also are sources of pollution to the environment e.g. fumes from a cars exhaust, gas flare from oil refineries e.t.c.
Precautionary principle
Basically the government stays committed to keeping all action taken based on factual and scientific proof and data which are generally derived from research. To take action without certainty about the harm to the environment is not a right response. But In any case that the damage to the environment is uncertain and as well important, it may be necessary to take action on the basis of precautionary principle.
This meaning of the principle is constant with others in international usage, especially the Rio Declaration which outlines the “precautionary approach” thus:
“Where there are threats or serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation” (The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. 13 June 1992. Principle 15)
This statement is a valuable reminder that the principle can be appropriate for all sorts of environmental damage that may happen; neither should it only apply to the activities of government.
Carrying capacity
The ecological basics have a vital part to play. This refers more to the capability of a habitat to sustain a given population or specie. This is sometimes elaborated on as the carrying capacity, even though it can be used to mean several other expressions in different concepts.
It is also used as a form of describing the ability of the environment to absorb pollution and waste properties. The ozone layer provides a very important example: If it were to breakdown to a certain extent the earth as a whole would not be able to keep in existence as many living species, in fact causing a threat to human life, including the loss of many fauna and flora. As specific application in the context of pollution control is the calculation of the critical load of a pollutant that an ecosystem can absorb.
Natural environmental capital
The entire human wealth is not only to be measured by man –made capital but must let also for natural environmental capital and other areas of the quality of life. The natural capitals which are taken into consideration are both renewable and non-renewable resources. The challenge faced by sustainable development is to finding ways of improving the total wealth while using common natural resources efficiently, so that renewable resources can be saved and non renewable at a pace that takes into consideration the needs and wants of future generations. It is also essential that careful analysis be taken if there are any irreversible risks of environmental effects or damage, if any exist then how important are they and what their effects are on the environment.
Future generations
Decisions need to be taken about the weight to be put on these factors in specific cases. In some cases environmental cost have to be taken as it is, as the sacrifice for economic development, in other circumstances the environment, habitat, or ecosystem has to be safeguarded against any form of exploitation. Such decisions should be taken with consideration of the future of generations to come and the pressure that one society puts on our global environment and the world we live in.
“Polluter pays” principle
So many environmental pollution cases and resource diminishing happens because the people carrying out these processes are not the ones that will bear the consequences of their actions.
Ultimately if the polluter or the consumer is made to pay then the price of pollution, then the usage of natural resources is brought into calculation and account of the corporate enterprise.
Environmental policy in this area is thus governed by the “polluter pays” principle, which was accepted by organisations for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries as long as 1972. This demands that, when production methods threaten or result in any damage to the environment, the cost of all required environmental procedures should be provided by the producer and not by the society at large, providing certain incentives to lower pollution. To a certain degree that where the cost is passed to the consumer it is known or can be said to be the user pays and this causes in effect a reduction in the demand and purchase of such products therein decreasing the polluting activity.
Challenges and Issues
According to scientific evidence and the effects of carbon-dioxide in global warming and the vital role of the usage and the burning of fossil fuels in this process many attempts have been made to connect most responsibility internationally for environmental hazards. It has generally been given as a fact that the carbon-dioxide emissions from more developed, advanced and industrialised nations till date, has by far surpassed that of the contribution from the developing nations as given below:
Fig 1.3 Carbon-dioxide emissions: share of world total (Source: UNDP, 2003).
Fig 1.4 Carbon dioxide emissions: per capita (metric tonnes) (Source: UNDP, 2003).
In 1990 the World Resources Institute(WRI) the influential Washington based research group whose environment analysis are regularly used by policy makers and several other researchers around the world published statistics relating to the contribution of various nations to global warming, equally using the same data the Centre for Science and Environment which is based in India but with a different methodology for analysing net emissions and responsibilities, which was mainly on carbon emissions from places beyond only fossil fuel combustion. The conclusive data was that the responsibility was evenly distributed between industrialised and developing regions of the world according to the WRI but an alternative by the Centre for environment argues that comparisons are supposed to be made between countries emissions on a per capita basis as shown below:
Fig 1.5 Responsibility for net emissions of greenhouse gases as calculated by (a) the World Resources Institute and (b) the Centre for Science and Environment (Source: Barrow, 1995).
A Case Study example- Breakdown of the Nuclear reactors at Chernobyl in Ukraine 1986
Even when there is an obvious understanding of who is to be held responsible for pollution as in the case of the breakdown of the nuclear reactors at Chernobyl in Ukraine in 1986, the effects can move far beyond the borders and boundaries of a country as illustrated below:
Fig 1.6 The Progress of Chernobyl plume, 1986
Source: Allen and Hamnett (1995)
The effects of Chernobyl was experienced sparsely over a period of time: ‘the soil character and farming practices of Cumbria and North Wales meant that livestock have been contaminated for years; elsewhere in the United Kingdom, the most obvious impacts passed in weeks’ (Yearley, 1995:156). There are disagreements by scientist about the nature of the link between the pollutants and ill conditions of ecosystems and humans. There is very little knowledge about such issues for instance about the thresholds above which nuclear wastes are hazardous to humans and as well about the period of time needed, for such products to turn harmless.
Conclusion
The environment should be treated with caution because the issues and problems that arise from it affect everyone. The pressures and need for development should be made to balance with the environment for the progress of sustainable development and change for the present day generation and the future.
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