The main field of this research is sport terminology. For this matter Lackoff and Johnson marked out six main types of soccer metaphor:
- Sport is war:
- the game is a battle: A great game of soccer with two superb sides battling for supremacy. Битва футбольних титанів.
- the football field is the war field: Holland mounted their first attack on the right flank. Стадіон – полігон для експериментів, простір для маневрів.
- the ball is weapon: Kaka blasted the ball past Kahn. A rocket shot, a snap-shot, a bullet header. Розстріл воріт, постріл у ворота.
2. A team is a mechanism:
- a player is a part of the mechanism: Makelele is a crutial part of Chelsea machine. Схема гри, обробка м’яча.
- a team is machine: he Galacticos have hardly been firing on all cylinders in league this season. Динамо на всіх парах несеться до перемоги.
3. A game is a travel:
- movement of players is traveling: But this only allowed Robbens freedom to roam down the left flank. Реєс вільно розгулював по правому флангу.
- the tournament is a travel: Chelsea march on to the Fifth round, route to the final. Путівка у півфінал.
4. The game is a buiding:
- football field is a castle. The gates are the front door: Neither side could break the deadlock, the defensive wall. Підібрати ключ до воріт суперника, відкрити ворота.
- the play of a team is a building: to break the defensive wall, to build attacks. Геометрія футболу, фундамент атак.
5. The team is a group; the tournament is a group:
- a play is a job, a player is a worker: Robin van Persie was dismissed in the 45th minute. Ювелірна передача, каліграфічний удар.
- role – home: Duff is an exciting player equally at home on the wing or in the center. На лівому фланзі Робен почував себе як вдома.
6. Sport is art:
- game is a play, players are artists: Zidane and Materazzi had been the key actors in the drama all night. Суперники помінялися ролями, маестро, віртуоз, сценарій фіналу.
- game is music: Newcastle seem to have found their rhythm. Дует форвардів, дери жер.
Metaphors that are connected with orientation in space are called oriantational metaphor. Metaphor orientations are based on our physical and cultural experience. Defensive game is related with the notion of depth, attack with the notion of sharpness: Counter – attack started from deep in their penalty area. Діяти з глибини; гострота атаки.
Among all the analysed expressions the most frequent is “Sport is war” model. Most of the metaphor models are universal and it is an essential part of the sport discourse.
2. Language for specific purposes
Specialized lexis is not found somewhere in between the units of common vocabulary, but forms its sublanguages, organized according to the pattern of language in general, which, however, are smaller and professionally oriented. Sublanguages are not used by professionals only, but also by large groups of people as professional argot. Thus, sublanguage is a subvariety of language used in a particular field or by a particular social group and characterized especially by distinctive vocabulary.
Such professional orientation of lexis ranging from top scientific terminology to professional argot allows us to speak about the existence of a number of autonomous and smaller specialized sublanguages, or languages for specific purposes (LSP) within an all-national language. The term “sublanguage” arose in the 60s of XX c. and designated the complex of means (basically lexical ones) used in texts on a particular subject. On the one hand sublanguages are richer than general language – because of a great number of specialized words. On the other hand, they are poorer because they use only a part of the expressive means of the language in general. The expressive means of a sublanguage develop lopsidedly, because here only those linguistic elements develop that are required by a particular professional activity. The language in general becomes a certain background for it, just a reserve from which necessary means are borrowed.
A professional sublanguage that embraces the whole trade but remains obscure to non-professionals should be distinguished from the so-called lingua franca, i.e. freely functioning languages that include a certain international fund of special (but not narrowly professional) lexis and thus understandable to many. Such languages arose among sailors, travelers, merchants etc. Later in Europe Latin became the lingua franca of tradesmen, and in the East Arabic played such a role for a long time.
Professional sublanguages as autonomous language systems within one national language are not strictly isolated from one another. They all form a part of the national language. Persons who use a certain sublanguage usually have a command of one or a number of other sublanguages and may serve the transition of borrowings from one system into another.
In many sublanguages international elements prevail over the national ones.
- Growth of languages for specific purposes
The term “languages for specific purposes” (LSP) arose in the 70s in the countries where German is spoken. It is extremely close to the term “sublanguage” because any LSP is based on specialized lexis.
In terms of grammar, LSP is poorer than the general language, whose syntax is deliberately developed. LSP is, on the contrary, marked by poor and frequently repeated constructions. Thus, many scholars regard LSP as a complex of terms and typical constructions.
LSPs are usually poor in expressive means. It lacks the variety of stylistic devices found in literary texts. The reason is that expressiveness interferes with conceptual accuracy.
Non-terms in an LSP are a usual phenomenon because they serve the purpose of communication. Whatever the level of specialization, any text should include general vocabulary units for communicational purposes. However, each LSP has a certain set of common words it employs and their number is rather limited.
A great contribution to the study of functional-stylistic varieties of scientific, professionally oriented and commercial texts all functioning as Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) has been made by western researchers. The history of LSP emergence and development starts after World War II. “The notion of LSP appeared in the 1960’s as a result of scientific, technological and economic revolutions that required the knowledge of the English language within a certain type of scientific and professional activity”. However, the study of language was activity-oriented even before, though it was not realized. The development of LSP has 5 stages:
- register analysis;
- discourse analysis;
- target situation analysis;
- skills and strategies;
- learning-centered approach.
Now we can also speak about the rise of the sixth stage of LSP development – it is learner-oriented approach. The main distinctive feature of this approach is that focus is on the learner with his/her needs and interests. Similarly, the teaches have recently been speaking of the learning, not teaching, process which first of all implies learner’s striving for and ability of learning. The last for stages of LSP development reveal considerable deviation form language linguistic analysis and enthusiasm for teaching methodology. English for Academic Purposes as a functional-stylistic variety of LSP is divided into English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) and English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP).
The latter deals with the elaboration of principles of scientific text logical arrangement, the identification of structural identity and dissimilarity of scientific texts, the revelation of their lexical, grammatical and stylistic peculiarities in various fields of science. The language of EIRS (English for International Relations Students) researchers is part of ESAP, therefore its research includes linguistic structure analysis, lexical content study as well as the study of grammar and style.
LSP research that is a combined linguistic and methodological study of the English language is of major topicality. It is connected with the fact that the aim of this trend of research is the solution of a serious contradiction between traditional linguistic studies and the existing practice of professional language in higher educational institutions.
- Why sport English is a Language for Specific Purposes
We can state that Language of Sport is Language for specific purpses as it has all these characteristics:
- it is defined to meet specific needs of the learners.
- it is related and designed for specific field.
- it is usually used in specific situations.
- it is designed both for professional users and amateurs.
We can see that Language for Specific Purpose (in this case Sport language) can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. It is created for everyone in general and for each person in particular. If we agree with this definition, we will see how broad LSP really is. In fact, one may ask 'What is the difference between the LSP and General English?' The answer is quite simple, "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal".
3. Terminology and system of terms
Terminology is a subsystem of the general lexicon, which means that it must be in compliance with the general lexical standard. According to Šipka, the difference between the term and non-term is the following:
• Term has lexical meaning;
• The essential form of the term is the written one whereas it is the pronounced
form with the lexeme in the general lexicon;
• Terms are the consequence of conscious intervention;
• There is terminological correlation between different languages;
• Synchronic dimension is particularly important for the term, as opposed to diachronic one as a characteristic of the non-term (D. Šipka, 1998).
One of the word formation processes in terminology is borrowing words and abbreviations from other languages. The number of such words in the sports terminology is high (in the corpus of terms in football, it is as high as 57.47%). Most of the loan words are of English origin. The most common reason for lexical borrowing is a lexical gap for a particular notion. Before the borrowed term is integrated into the lexicon, it should be adapted on the semantic, phonological and morphological levels so that it may function as the domesticated one.
3.1 The way the term appears
The number of terms in developed countries usually exaggerates the number of usual words and one can count now around few millions of lexical units. This number is increasing rapidly.
Terminological units come to a language in different ways. The first one is the recognition of a usual word a term. This is not the best method because of reinterpretation and metonymy (“голова”, “плече”). The form, pronunciation, declination and stress of the term may be changed to differentiate such lexemes.
Borrowing is more appropriate way of term creation. Different terms are taken from different languages depending on historical situation. Music and commercial terminology usually is of Italian origin (леґато, адажіо, анданте, банк, авізо, лоро, альпарі), scenic and post terms are of French origin (антракт, партер, афіша, кур’єр, бандероль), sport terminology is of English origin (футбол, спорт, чемпіон, ринґ). Military and technical terms are taken from German (верстат, кронштейн, еркер, плац, бруствер, фельдфебель, штандарт).
The usage of Greek or Latin words and word combinations is another type of borrowing. Such terms were formed in different periods of language development. Church terminology for those who profess catholism is mainly taken from Latin. For the Greek Church it is mainly taken from Greek. But today terms can be formed by mixed type: one stem of Greek origin, another one of Latin ( for example, word «термінологія» consists of Latin element terminus — limit and Greek logos — science).
It should be mentioned that new terms are not simply “thought out”. Another way of term creation is borrowing from another field and in this case it may acquire a new meaning (for example, «морфологія» in linguistic and biology; «мовлення» in linguistic, physiology, medicine and psychology).
3.2 Term definition
It is not easy to define the term and there were many attempts to do it. We will consider two of them.
Golovin B.N. says that the term is the word or a word combination that denotes a proffecional notion and should be used in a concrete field.
The Scietific and Terminology Committe defines a term as a word or word combination as the unity of the phonetic sigh and the notion of this sign in the system of concepts of some scientific brunch. We may assume that terminology is the unity of terms which express the notion of some sphere, that were historically formed (Kvutko, Lejchuk 1986).
In the process of terminology research linguists define:
- terminology study (terminology);
- professional lexicon of some language (ukrainian or english lexicon);
- professional lexicon of some field (linguistic or medicine lexicon).
The system is the unity of elements and the relations between them, and the term is its essential part and it will not exist if it is not systematic. This system consists of concrete knowladge of some field.
3.3 Semantic features of a term
Terminology being a part of general lexicon has it’s own peculiarities. Some linguists recognise scientific and technical terminology. Winje G. and Marten A. emphasize that this difference is caused by circumstances of science and technic development: the technic appeared as the result of longlasting tests and mistakes that were held at random and the science was developed autonomous and on purpose. That’s why we cannot say that technic and science belong to the same thought field and can be expressed by means of the same linguistic units. For each case different notions and means are used. But we should also remembered that these spheres had been developed in parallels and supplementing one another.
Term specification :
- The term shuold suit the norms and rules of a language.
- The term should be systematic.
- The term should have clear definition of some notion.
- The term may be relatively independent from the context.
- The term should be accurate.
- The term should be short.
- The term should be monosemantic (this monosemantic should exist in one system of terms).
- Synonymy is not inherent to terminology.
- The term should be neutral.
- The term should be euphonious (dialecticisms, slang or barbarisms cannot be used for term creation).
Though, the term is not isolated or independent from general lexicon but forms a full value part of general lexicon.
3.4 Morphological structure of sport terms in English
The first stage for term translation is the determination of the field the term is referred to and comprehension of its meaning in the source language and ability to translate it to the target language.
Kovalenko A.J. determines two stages of terminology translation: defining the meaning of a term and translation of it to the target language. To make an accurate translation one should find out which type of term formation the given word belongs to. Kovalenko defines four main types:
-
simple - a term consists of one word: back – захисник, offense – напад;
-
compound – a term consists of two words that are written as one word or with a dash: corner kick – кутовий удар, throw-in – викидання м’яча з-за бокової лінії;
-
terminological expressions that consist of few components: cut down the angle – зменшити (зрізати) кут при ударі м’яча, small-sided game – гра, в якій в обох командах грає менше ніж 11 гравців;
-
abbreviations: FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association — the official governing body of international soccer since 1904 which established the World Cup tournament; helps set and revise rules of the game, called the 17 Laws) - Всесвітня Федерація Футбольних Асоціацій.
She also notes that all the terms are united into system of terms that are devoted to some peculiar field. Each system of terms is divided into groups that denote the class of objects, processes or characteristics.
3.5 Types of terminology translation
Scientists differentiate few types of terminology translation methods. One of the easiest ways of translation is transliteration - a mapping from one system of writing into another, word by word, or ideally letter by letter. Transliteration attempts to be exact, so that an informed reader should be able to reconstruct the original spelling of unknown transliterated words; it is usually used for the simple type: dribbling – дриблінг, offside – офсайд, позиція поза грою. But a translator should use this method very carefully because of ‘false words’ that while transliteration may misrepresent the meaning: data- дані, instance - випадок.
Another method is calque or loan translation and it is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") or root-for-root translation. This method is usually used for complex or compound terms translation: a standard key-combination – стандартна комбінація клавіш, Bundesliga – бундесліга, forward pass – пас вперед.
Descriptive method is useful for neologisms or author terms translation that are written in quotation marks: Today we are all members of many global “non-place” communities – сьогодні ми всі є членами багатьох глобальних спільнот, що не прив’язані до якоїсь певної території; diving header – удар „ластівкою” (удар головою в падінні).
The adequacy of translation depends on:
- the background knowledge of the field the term is used in;
- the type of the term;
- the proper choice of translation method.
3.6 Sport terms translation hardship
Integral processes Ukraine is involved in now are connected with different human activity spheres, including sport and physical training. Development of existing sport arts and implementation of new ones are of great interest for the liguistic studies, as most of those terms are taken from foreign languages and some of those terms do not exist at all in languages under study (English and Ukrainian). So we should take care of adequacy of its translation.
Adequacy problem is very important as the more adequate translation is the more exactly the process or phenomenon is expressed. Emotional component is very important during translation and it complicates greatly the adequacy of translation. The translation issues were of great interest for the linguists for a long time. One should mention works of Karaban V.I., Komisarova V.I., Korynets I.V. Nowadays, the foreign language terminology peculiarities in the target language are emphasized (Mazjuk G., Borovska O.V.).
Vinogradova V.S. distinguished six main text types, one of which is socio-political (here belong magazines, newspapers, radio, television). These texts should somehow influence on society, but the function of message delivery remains the main and forms the text typology.
Connotative sense is also inherent for the sport terms (and this is emotional component). Some terms are of slang origin, so it is not that easy to convey the connotative meaning because it may be lost during translation. Sport terms are significant for games and motional component is vital for such terminology. During the game people are fulfilled with different emotions (stress, happiness, expressiveness, rage) and often terms are invented under the influence of such feelings:
Smash (lawn tennis) – means a ‘удар’, but this strike is crushing, because ‘smach’ means destroy, crash.
Timekeeper – means ‘секундомерист’, while ‘keeper’ means guard, watch.
Goalkeeper – means ‘воротар’, where ‘goal’ means ворота, гол (but the first meaning is aim, target).
English word ‘foul’ is of great interest because in sport it means fault, break of the rule but the first meaning is dirty, stinking or spoiled and if we consider ‘foul situation’ in a game, it may be translated as dirty game.
One more example is taken from basketball: key lane – it means трисекундна зона, but if to translate it literally – the meaning ‘the key zone’. We can see the importance of the connotative meaning in these examples. Frequently translators do not realize the importance of connotative meanings that are vividly expressed in English but do not exist in Ukrainian translation. During translation from English into Ukrainian the denotative meaning is kept but the emotional component may be lost.
Sport terminology is specific but it is used by everyone and everywhere (by sportsman and amateurs), and it is used in texts of this type. The greatest peculiarity of sport terms among all the other terms is the sense of relative equivalence, if to take into account the type of texts they are used for. So we should mind the translation equivalence. Equivalence is keeping the relative balance of semantic, stylistic and functional information for both – the source and the target language terms (Vinogradov V.S.). Original and translation equivalence is general understanding of information located in a text, including information that can influence not only upon mind but also upon senses of the recipient. This information in expressed both explicitly and implicitly. Adequate translation is the translation that directly conveys not only the main plot but also stylistic peculiarities of lexical and grammatical notions. Chyzhakina A.P. states that the main component of adequacy in translation is direct preservation of literary norm and style.
While translating sport articles one should not loose informative plot, and the target text should be of the same style as the source one. It means that different syntax transformations will take place while translation (such translations have relative equivalence, but they are more alike the original then while interpreting):
The world champions, who will meet New Zealand in the final, scored twice inside the opening six minutes and added two more in the closing four minutes to complete a crushing victory. Australia scored a further two tries including a 41st minute effort from captain Darren Lockyer, who delivered a masterful performance.
Чемпіони світу, які зустрінуться з Новою Зеландією в фіналі, набрали 2 напівсередніх на шостій хвилині матчу та додали ще 2 очки під час заключних чотирьох хвилин на довершення розгромної перемоги. Австралія набрала ще два трьохочкових, включаючи й видатну спробу Даррена Локієра, капітана команди, який продемонстрував майстерну гру.
Absence of terminological accuracy and short phrases that should be decoded and explained are typical for English magazine language. Absence of terminological accuracy is caused by lexico - semantical peculiarities of English. It means that one lexeme may contain a lot of senses that are used both in general context and specific one. Very often the translation appears to be much bigger then the original text. For example:
“Заяви представників виконавчої влади про можливу націоналізацію, про
гіпотетичне повернення клубу під крило МВС, про нібито наявні порушення при проведенні трансферних операцій налякали не тільки легіонерів Динамо” (Дзеркало тижня, 7 (535), 2005).
“The recent statements about alleged violations during some transfers,
about Dynamo”s possible nationalization and the restitution of its [Soviet-era]
subordination to the Interior Ministry didn’t scare just the players”
(Zerkalo Nedeli, 7(535), 2005).
One more example:
“Secondly, FIFA and UEFA are very particular about government’s noninterference with football affairs” (Zerkalo Nedeli, 7 (535), 2005).
“По-друге, як уже згадувалося, ФІФА та УЕФА (Всесвітня федерація і Європейський союз футбольних асоціацій, членами яких є Україна) дуже пильно стежать за тим, щоб держава жодним чином не втручалася у футбольні справи”. (Дзеркало тижня, 7 (535), 2005)
So, the differences in terminology use and translation in both languages is obvious. It happens because of style difference (newspaper style and translation explanation). We can see that even the size of the original and translation is different.
Scientists share the thought that terms should be referred to the lexical group in which lexical meanings of the words in different languages are almost the same:
суперматч -supermatch
кубкові старти – cup starts
турнір – tournament
футбольний газон – football pitch
кубок – cup
зональний турнір – zone tournament
міні футбол – mini-football
суддівська колегія – panel of judges
флангова передача – flank pass
гольова передача – goal pass
стартовий гол – start goal
правофланговий рейд із передачею в центр - right-flank attack with the center passing
полевий гравець – fielder, fine-leg, short leg, mid-wicket, mid-on, long slop, cover-point ,deep-field;
командний пресинг – team pressing
штрафний – penalty
фланговий наступ – flank-attack
лівий фланг – left-wing,
фол – foul
бомбардир - shooter, striker
дроп-гол – drop goal
гольовий реєстр – goal list
захисник – full-back
удар з напівлету – drop-kick
удар в “дев’ятку” – corner kick.
Some terms may have many meanings. For example, terms overtime (овертайм), outsider (аутсайдер), revenge (реванш) etc. are not only sport terms, but also terms used is different systems of terms (Great Explanatory Ukrainian Dictionary).
It is stated that while translating one should not only choose the meaning from the dictionary, but should also use different unexpected words, taked from everyday speech as the dictionary cannot include all the meanings of a concrete word or word-combinations. For example, English lexeme 'goal' or 'gate' and Ukrainian 'ворота': in Ukrainian we may say 'без воріт' (it means that there were no goals in this game), but this lexeme is not expected to be used in such a word combination (it is not fixed in a dictionary):
“Обидві в поганому стані, команди видали сумне видовище, що в
народі іменують як “зовсім без воріт”.
Both being in bad shape the teams produced a kind of sorry sight commonly called “without a goal”.
Or
“Цього року мені вже доводилося відвідувати дитячо-юнацькі спортивні змагання товариства на Кубок “Золотий колосок”, а також міжнародний турнір штангістів... та за всіма не встигнути, бо “колосіївський” спортивний пульс прослуховується настільки широко, наскільки безкрайніми є сільські місцевості України.”
This year I happened to visit the children’s-youthful sporting event of the association which was the cup-tie “The golden spikelet” and the weight-kifters’ international tournament… but one can’t catch up with everybody as the athletic pulse of the ‘spikelets’ is strong to the extend the Ukrainian countryside is boundless (Спортивна газета, № 77, 2006).
Metaphoric expression ' спортивний пульс' can be felt only in the context and it is not taken from the dictionary. Sport terms are the object of this investigation, and they are taken from sport newspapers and articles. So we should take into account that for this text style characteristic is the use of these terms together with general lexicon. And we should mind this during translation:
“І влада, й її супротивники, здається, узяли на озброєння тактику «відкритого футболу», при якій на кожну атаку обов’язково відповідають контратакою. Подібні «ігри» тривали весь минулий тиждень. І, мабуть, ніколи ще пресинг не був такий запеклий, форварди — такі наполегливі, а захисники — такі нещадні”
(Дзеркало тижня, 9 (333), 2001).
”Both the authorities and their opponents seem to have adopted the tactics of ‘open football when each attack will be repelled with a counterattack. The ‘game ‘ has been going on all the past week. Never before, it seems, has the pressure been higher, forwards more persistent, and fullbacks more ferocious” (Zerkalo nedeli, 9 (333), 2001).
Commonly used lexicon and terminology are semantically united. We should mind it while translating sport terms and articles from English into Ukrainian. When we use a general word to nominate some peculiar notion this word acquires the new meaning. Most of the sport terms are internationalisms and most of them are of English or Latin origin; those words are either absolutely or partly transliterated. A great number of realias are translated by means of transliteration, calque or paraphrase:
кваліфайн-раунд – qualifying round
Челендж кап - challenge cup
суха поразка - love game, whitewash, lopsided score
грати в нічию - run a dead heat
опен-турнір – open tournament.
Very often the notion of synonymy complicates the translation adequacy. Sometimes synonyms of the sport term may explain it (or a term may be translated to the target language, these translated terms are called duplicates). For example:
goal-keeper – голкіпер, воротар
ball – куля, м'яч, шкіряна куля, футбольний м'яч.
But the most interesting for the translator is professional sport terminology and here the context plays the main role:
Coach: "I told ye afore no’ tae skelp it frae the hauf-way line."
Translation: "Не намагайся давати подачу воротарю з відстані 60 ярдів, якщо звичайно ти не Пеле чи Девід Бекхам."
Coach: "Effin hell laddie ... you couldnae score in a knockin’ shop."
Translation: "Відпрацюй техніку подачі, інакше переведу тебе назад до Реалу."
As we see, the translator should mind not only lexical equivalence but also the type of the text it is used for as a good term translation depends on the context it is used in.
Such discursive questions of equivalent translation of sport terminology as synonyms and lexical transformation are regarded on the basis of English and Ukrainian sport texts of public informative character. We make an attempt to consider the existing methods of translation of the whole amount of sport terminology taking into account lexical, grammatical, contextual and communicative information. The peculiarity of sport terminology translation - its relative equivalence is pointed out.
The analysis of the “Soccer glossary”
Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terms are words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. Not to be confused with "terms" in colloquial usages, the shortened form of technical terms (or terms of art) which are defined within a discipline or specialty field. The discipline Terminology studies among other things how such terms of art come to be and their interrelationships within a culture.
Terminology is a subsystem of the general lexicon, which means that it must be in compliance with the general lexical standard. Terminology being a part of general lexicon has it’s own peculiarities. Most of the terms that exist in Ukrainian are taken from another languager. Sport terms that are being investigated in this paper are mostly of English origin. The main task for me is not only to translate sport terms, but to translate them faithfully, to choose the best means of verbalization and the most suitable method of translation.
The first stage for term translation is the determination of the field the term is referred to, the comprehension of its meaning in the source language and ability to translate it to the target language.
For my research I used Soccer glossary which contains 250 words and word-combinations. For the analysis I used on-line dictionaries, sport newspapers, comments and their translations. There are three main methods of translation that are the most suitable for terminology: transliteration, calque or loan translation and descriptive method.
The most common translation method used in this investigation is calque or loan translation that is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression form of another, but then translates literally each of its elements. As the result i found out that 164 out of 250 terms had been translated using this method:
AC (Appeal Committee FIFA): Апеляційний комітет (ФІФА);
AFC (Asian Football Confederation): Азійська конфедерація футболу;
Alterations to the Laws of the Game: Зміни Правил Гри;
American football: Американський футбол;
APSL (American Professional Soccer League): Американська ліга професійного футболу;
Artificial turf: штучне покриття;
Attacking midfielder: нападник, гравець, який атакує;
Attacker: нападник;
Attacking team: команда-нападник;
AYSO (American Youth Soccer Organization): Американська Oрганізація Юнацького Футболу;
Back: задній захисник;
Back header: пас головою назад;
Ball carrier: гравець, який володіє мячем;
Beat: обіграти м’яч, обводка м’яча;
Behind the defender: поза захисником;
Best Mover of the Year (FIFA/ Coca-Cola): Краща команда року (за класифікацією ФІФА і Кока-Кола);
Build of a player: тілобудова гравця;
Bumpy pitch: нерівне поле;
CAF (African Football Confederation): КАФ (Африканська конфедерація футболу);
Carrying the ball: прорив м’яча;
Caution: попередження; жовта картка;
Center: навіс;
Censure: строге попередження;
Center circle: центральне коло;
Center line: центральна лінія;
Center spot: центр поля;
Central defender: центральний захисник;
Chest trap: прийняти м’яч на груди;
Cleats: шипи (на підошві взуття гравця);
Competition Regulations (FIFA): Регламент змагань (ФІФА);
Consolation match: Втішний фінал; фінал за третє місце;
Corner arc: кутова дуга;
Corner area: кутова дуга;
Corner flag: кутовий прапорець;
Corner kick: кутовий (удар), удар в “дев’ятку”;
Crossbar: перекладина;
Cup Winner’s Cup: Кубок кубків;
Cut down the angle: зменшити (зрізати) кут;
Dangerous play: небезпечна гра;
Defenders: захисники;
Defending team: команда, яка захищається;
Defense: захист;
Defensemen: захисники (які грають на полі);
Defensive midfielder: півзахисник захисного плану;
Defensive pressure: відбір м’яча, пресинг;
Deflection: рикошет;
Direct free kick: нейтральний удар;
Draw: нічия;
The Draw: жеребкування (відбір до гри шляхом жеребкування);
Drop ball: спірний м’яч;
Drop kick: удар з напівлету; вибивати м’яч, удар з рук (воротаря);
Emergency Committee (FIFA): Комітет з надзвичайних справ ФІФА;
Endline: лицева лінія;
English Football Association: Англійська Асоціація Футболу;
European Cup: Кубок Європи;
F.A. (Football Association): Футбольна Ліга;
Fake or feint: симуляція;
Far post: дальня штанга;
Field: футбольне поле;
FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association): Всесвітня Федерація Футбольних Асоціацій;
FIFA/ Coca-Cola world ranking: Всесвітній рейтинг ФІФА/ Кока-Кола;
FIFA World Cup: Кубок ФІФА;
FIFA World Player: Кращий футболіст ФІФА;
Flick header: “підрізати” м’яч головою;
Foot trap: вести м’яч;
Formation: розташування (гравців під час гри);
Forward pass: пас вперед;
Forwards: нападники;
Foul: порушення, фол;
Free kick: нейтральний, вільний удар;
Front header: удар (пас) головою;
Front tackle: фронтальна атака;
Goal area: воротарський майданчик;
Goal line: лінія воріт;
Goalie: воротар, голкіпер, брамкар;
Goalkeeper: воротар, голкіпер, брамкар;
Goalposts: штанга;
Halfback: півзахисник;
Halftime: перерва;
Halves: тайми;
Hand ball/fault: гра рукою;
Header: удар головою;
Hook: закручений м’яч;
IFAB (International Football Association Board): Міжнародна Рада Асоціації Футболу;
In bounds: в межах поля;
In play: м’яч у грі;
Indirect free kick: вільний удар;
Injury time: додатковий (компенсований) час;
Instep drive: удар підйомом;
Intermission: перерва (між таймами додаткового часу);
Juggling: жонглювати м’ячем, набивати м’яч;
Kit: форма футболіста;
Laws of the Game: Правила Гри;
Lead pass: пас на хід;
Linkman: півзахисник;
Man-to-man: персональний захист, вихід один на один;
Midfield: середина поля, центральна зона;
Midfield line or center line: середина поля, центральна зона;
Midfielders: півзахисники;
NASL (North American Soccer League): Північно Американська Ліга Футболу;
Nations’ Cup: Кубок Націй;
National team: Національна збірна;
Near post: ближня штанга;
Net: сітка;
NOC (National Olympic Committee): НОК (Національний Олімпійский Комітет);
NPSL (National Professional Soccer League): Національна Професійна Футбольна Ліга;
OFC (Oceania Football Confederation): ОФК (Конфедерація футболу Океанії);
Offense: напад;
Offensive player: нападник;
Offensive team: команда-нападник;
Official game clock: годинник судді (секундомір);
Officials: суддівська бригада;
Out of play: зупинка гри;
Overtime: додатковий час, овертайм;
Passing: пас, передача м’яча;
Penalty area: штрафний мвяданчик;
Penalty kick: удар пенальті, 11-метровий удар;
Penalty shot: удар пенальті, 11-метровий удар;
Penalty spot: точка пенальті (11-метрова);
Periods: тайми;
Pitch: футбольне поле;
Play: гра, володіти м’ячем;
Playing colours: колір футбольної форми команди;
Playoff: плейоф, гра «на виліт»;
Points: очки (які набирає команда в загальнокомандному заліку);
Possession: володіння м’ячем;
Post: пост, точка;
Push pass: передача/ пас м’ячем;
Qualifying Draw: жеребкування, кваліфікаційні турніри, відбіркові матчі;
Qualifying matches: відбіркові матчі;
Red card: червона картка;
Referee: суддя, арбітр;
Regular season: регулярний сезон;
Round: раунд;
Score: гол, рахунок;
Scorers: гравці, які забили гол, бомбардири;
Scoring opportunity: гольовий момент;
Shinguards/shinpads: щитки (захисний щиток на нозі у гравця);
Shot: удар;
Shoulder charge: гра плечем;
Sideline or touchline: бокова лінія;
Small-sided game: гра у меншості (обидві команди складаються менше ніж з 11 гравців);
Square pass: діагональний пас;
Steal: відібрати м’яч;
Striker: нападник, бамбардир;
Substitution: заміна (гравців);
Sudden death, golden goal: Правило «раптової смерті», «золотий» гол;
Tackling: відбір м’яча;
Territory: територія (своя половина поля);
Through pass - ball: проникний пас;
Throw a match: навмисне програти матч;
Throw-in: викидання м’яча (з-за бокової лінії);
Tie game: нічия, гра „в нічию”;
Timekeeper: контроль часу, хронометрист, таймкіпер;
Touchline: бокова лінія;
Trailing: переслідування гравця;
Trap: прийом м’яча;
Unsportsmanlike conduct: неспортивна поведінка;
USSF (United States Soccer Federation): Американська Федерація Футболу;
USYSA (United States Youth Soccer Association): Юнацька Футбольна Ліга Сполучених Штатів;
Venue: місце проведення матчу;
Wall: стіна (шість гравців створюють «захисну стін» під час штрафного удару);
Wall pass: зіграти «в стіну»;
Wings or wingers: флангові гравці (вінгери);
World Cup: Кубок Світу;
Yellow card: жовта картка;
„Yellow fever”: “жовта лихоманка” (надлишок жовтих карток, які отримали гравці команди під час гри).
A small part of soccer terms had been translated using transliteration that is a mapping from one system of writing into another, word by word, or ideally letter by letter. Transliteration attempts to be exact, so that an informed reader should be able to reconstruct the original spelling of unknown transliterated words. To achieve this objective, transliteration may define complex conventions for dealing with letters in a source script which do not correspond with letters in a goal script. This method id used when there are no means of verbalization in the target language for the given word, so the term is “taked” from the source language though it is written with the means of target one.
In my research i translated 13 terms out of 250 using transliteration.
Bundesliga: Бундесліга, німецька ліга професійного футболу;
Counterattack: контратака, атака у відповідь;
Dribbler: дриблер;
Football: футбол;
Goal: Гол (м’яч у воротах);
Hat trick: хеттрик (коли один гравець забиває три м’ячі за одну гру);
League: ліга;
Match: матч, гра;
Penalty: пенальті, 11-метровий удар;
Rugby: регбі;
Save: сейв;
Stopper: стопер;
Timeout: таймаут.
Durind my invastigation I found out that very useful is also descriptive method of translation. This method is useful for neologisms or author terms translation, also when you cannot find direct and correct word or equivalent so you describe the concept of phenomenon by means of target language.
73 words and word-combinations out of 250 had been translated using this method:
Assist: гольовий пас;
Banana kick: закручений (різаний) удар;
Bicycle kick: удар через себе;
Break: іти у відрив, переваги;
Breakaway: вихід один на один;
Cap: кількість матчів, які зіграв гравець за збірну своєї країни;
Charge: стик з гравцем (піти в стик);
Chip pass: винос м’яча;
Chip shot: закинути м’яч за «комірець» голкіперу;
Clear: винести м’яч (з воріт);
Club: команда, яка грає у лізі;
Creating space: звільнити шлях для гравця, який атакує;
Cross or crossing pass: простріл (м’ячем);
Cut off: «видавлювати» м’яч з воріт;
Diving header: удар головою під час падіння;
Dribbling: обводка м’яча, дриблінг;
Forward line: група гравців атаки, передня лінія;
4-2-4: комбінація гравців: 4 захисники, 2 півзахисники, 4 нападники;
4-3-3: комбінація гравців: 4 захисники, 3 півзахисники, 3 нападники;
4-4-2: комбінація гравців: 4 захисники, 4 півзахисники, 2 нападники;
Fullback: крайній захисник;
Goal kick: удар від воріт;
Goalmouth: небезпечний, гольовий удар (момент);
Hacking: удар по ногах;
Jules Rimet Trophy: Кубок Світу (from 1930 to 1970);
Kickoff: розіграш м’яча;
Linesmen: суддя на лінії, боковий суддя;
Loft or lob: м’яч, який летить по високій дузі;
Marking: „тримати гравця”;
Midfield anchor: опорний півзахисник;
Mismatch: перевага гравця;
Obstruction: прикрити корпусом м’яч;
Offside: м’яч «поза грою»;
Offside position: позиція «поза грою»;
On defense: команда, яка захищається;
On offense: команда, яка володіє м’ячем;
On-side: гравець не був в положенні «поза грою», можна продовжувати гру;
Open: неприкритий гравець;
Out of bounds: аут (м’яч поза межами поля);
Outlet passes: винос м’яча (з зони воріт);
Overlap: звільнити фланг, звільнити «коридор»;
Penalty arc: дуга перед штрафним майданчиком;
Penetrate: прокинути м’яч;
Play on: команда «можна грати»;
Professional foul: навмисне порушення правил;
Receiver: адресат пасу (гравець, який приймає пас);
Reflex save: інстиктивно відбити м’яч;
Regulation game: основний час матчу;
Screening: прикрити корпусом м’яч;
Set play: «домашня заготовка», наперед продуманий план гри;
Shielding: прикрити корпусом м’яч;
Shooting: удар по воротах, простріл воріт;
Shorthanded: команда, яка грає в меншості (менше 11 гравців);
Shutout: гра без пропущений м’ячів, “суха гра”;
Side tackle: боковий відбір м’яча;
Single elimination: гра на виліт (складається з одного мятчу);
Sliding tackle: підкат;
Starter: гравець основного складу;
Stiffness: біль у м’язах;
Sweeper: останній захисник;
Thigh trap: зупинка м’яча в повітрі бедром;
2-on-1 break: вихід «два на один» (два нападники проти одного захисника);
3-on-1 break: вихід «три на один» (три нападники проти одного захисника);
3-on-2 break: вихід «три на два» (три нападники проти двох захисників);
Tiebreaker: спосіб визначення переможця після гри в нічию;
Turnover: втрата (обрізка) м’яча;
Two-way midfielder: плеймейкер;
Volley: удар у повітрі;
Win-draw-loss record: турнірна таблиця;
Zone: захист «у зоні».
On Figure 1 the relation of term translation methods used in this invastigation is displayed.
Fig.1. Term translation methods' relation.
My research of Soccer terminology is based on Kovalenko’s classification of terms’ formation, who defined:
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Simple terms, which consist of ona word (e.g. beat, goalie, starter);
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Compound terms, which consist of two stems or words and may be written as one word, with a dash pr separately (e.g. back header, goalmouth, on-side);
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Terminological expressions consists of three or more words (e.g. FIFA world player, Laws of the Game);
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Abbreviations (e.g. AYSO, FIFA, NOC).
I analysed Soccer glossary which counts 250 words and word-combinations. During research I found out that:
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100 words out of 250 are of simple type (e.g. assist, hook, kit, shot, stiffness);
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115 words out of 250 are compounds (e.g. bicycle kick, diving header, forward line, playing colours, “yellow fever”);
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21 word-combinations out of 250 are terminological expressions (e.g. build of a player, FIFA World Player, out of play, win-draw-loss record);
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14 out of 250 terms are abbreviations (e.g. AC, FIFA, NPSL, USYSA).
Soccer terms formation relation is displayed on the Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Terms formation relation
II. Solution of the problem by means of Computational Linguistic. The creation of on-line dictionary of sport terms
1. The PHP programming language
PHP is a scripting language originally designed for producing dynamic web pages. It has evolved to include a command line interface capability and can be used in standalone graphical applications.
While PHP was originally created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1995, the main implementation of PHP is now produced by The PHP Group and serves as the de facto standard for PHP as there is no formal specification. Released under the PHP License, the Free Software Foundation considers it to be free software.
PHP is a widely-used general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for web development and can be embedded into HTML. It generally runs on a web server, taking PHP code as its input and creating web pages as output. It can be deployed on most web servers and on almost every operating system and platform free of charge. PHP is installed on more than 20 million websites and 1 million web servers. The most recent major release of PHP was version 5.2.6 on May 1, 2008.
Usage
PHP is a general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for web development. PHP generally runs on a web server, taking PHP code as its input and creating web pages as output. It can also be used for command-line scripting and client-side GUI applications. PHP can be deployed on most web servers, many operating systems and platforms, and can be used with many relational database management systems. It is available free of charge, and the PHP Group provides the complete source code for users to build, customize and extend for their own use.
Originally designed to create dynamic web pages, PHP's principal focus is server-side scripting, and it is similar to other server-side scripting languages that provide dynamic content from a web server to a client, such as Microsoft's ASP.NET system, Sun Microsystems' JavaServer Pages, and mod_perl. PHP has also attracted the development of many frameworks that provide building blocks and a design structure to promote rapid application development (RAD). Some of these include CakePHP, PRADO, Symfony and Zend Framework, offering features similar to other web application frameworks.
As of April 2007, over 20 million Internet domains were hosted on servers with PHP installed, and PHP was recorded as the most popular Apache module. Significant websites are written in PHP including the user-facing portion of Facebook, Wikipedia (MediaWiki), Yahoo!, MyYearbook, and Tagged.
- The program product development
The on-line translation dictionary of sport terms based on Soccer sport art was developed to facilitate the language acquisition for language learners, sportsman and amateurs and also be useful for translators and interpreters.
The on-line sort terms dictionary is available from. The product was developed using php software. It is very simple to use, everyone can try it, add new words and leave comments.
Here is a small dictionary user manual:
On Figure 1 the Home page is displayed.
In the ‘Input search term’ widow type a word or phrase to be translated. Click ‘Search’ or ‘Enter’ button. A new window with the term, its definition and translation appears (see Figure 2).
Fig. 1. Home page
Fig. 2. Word article
Click ‘Edit term button’. A new window where you can edit a term, its definition and translation appears (see Figure 3).
In the window ‘Term’ the terms can be edited.
In the window ‘Definition’ the definition of the term can be edited.
In the window ‘Translation’ the translation of the term can be edited.
Click ‘Change term’ button to save changes.
Click ‘Search’ button at the top of the page to return to the main window.
Fig. 3. Edit window
Click ‘Add new term to dictionary’ button. A new window where you can add a new term to the dictionary appears (see Figure 4).
In a ‘Term’ window type a new word or word combination (English only).
In a ‘Translation’ window type a definition of a given word or word combination (English only).
In a window ‘Translation’ type a translation of the given word or word combination (Ukrainian only).
Click ‘Add term’ button to add the word or word combination to the dictionary.
Click ‘Search’ button at the top of the page to return to the main window.
Fig. 4. Add new term window
Click ‘List all terms button’ for all the words in a dictionary to be displayed below (see Figure 5).
Click ‘Search’ button at the top of the page to return to the main window.
Fig. 5. List of all terms window
Conclusions
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The translator should pay great attention to the interpretation of the lexeme connotative meaning and emotional component while adapting sport terms.
We should mind that a great part of sport terms belong to another language and it would be complicated to translate them without a background knowledge.
Sport terminology investigation and usability is still topical as the problem of Ukrainian terms implementation is not solved yet because most of the terms are of Russian origin.
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