One of the principal natural philosophers was Galileo who was born in 1654. He was a natural philosopher keen to progress science through experimentation and saw the value of public experiments as a means of proving his discoveries to his students. Galileo was Italian and emerged as a very dominant figure in the early stages of the Scientific Revolution. He studied medicine and mathematics and taught at the University of Padua, which was the leading centre of scientific learning. He was a figure of particular importance to the revolution. Not only did he make some astonishing discoveries; he did so at a time when the power of the church rendered scientific investigation as on the border of heresy. The emerging scientific theories challenged the conceptual basis of the catholic religion. Galileo had a very broad interest in science and he experimented on many different aspects of life. This ranged from constructing the first telescope (which then enabled him to gain an advanced understanding of the universe) developing the first microscope and arriving at the law of falling bodies.
Not only were his discoveries considerable but Galileo also contributed to the development of scientific method. Galileo preferred mathematical proof because it allowed him to remove the extraneous parts of the problem and express his law simply. Mathematics enabled Galileo to draw conclusions without any errors (a problem with actual experimentation). However once he had proved his law mathematically, Galileo understood the importance of experimentation as a means of teaching his students. He may not have dropped a light and heavy object from the leaning Tower (contrary to the legend) but he did appreciate the value of experimentation.
Beyond teaching his students, Galileo had little concern whether or not his discoveries reached ordinary people. His main objective was the progression of science and his own understanding and this was extremely valuable to the Scientific Revolution. He was an early scientist in the Revolution and his contributions not only advanced science but also gave later scientists theories and conclusions to work from. Galileo’s advances were made during a time when the Catholic Church considered revealed religion as the only source of knowledge. It was therefore difficult for his idea’s to be published and Galileo only seemed to receive negative responses to his advances. It is sad to think that after his achievements he died under House Arrest having been accused of heresy. His achievements were not recognised during his lifetime. His contribution to the Scientific Revolution was considerable and his challenge of the church’s ideas was ground breaking in itself. He may not have received the credit due, whilst he was alive but many scientists which followed him in the revolution owe their success to his theories.
Kepler was another scientist who found difficulties in exploring natural philosophy without causing tension in the church. However his religious situation and also his discoveries were different to Galileo’s.
Kepler was a German born in 1571. His mother was a herb dealer with an interest in astrology – which is how his own interest developed. In 1600 he became an assistant to Tycho Brahe a Danish astronomer and together they carried the search for an understanding of the workings of the universe, to a new stage of scientific knowledge. Brahe died in 1601 having built an observatory during his lifetime – from which he had charted the heavens. He made several advances but refused to believe Copernicus’ contention that the earth rotated around the sun. However false turns and setbacks were very much a part of the Scientific Revolution. On his deathbed Brahe implored Kepler to complete his observation tables by charting movements in the heavens and to make full use of his observatory. This Kepler did. However Kepler shared Copernicus’ belief that the earth moved and the sun stood still. After monitoring the movement of Mars, Kepler made the discovery that the orbits were in fact elliptical. In 1600 an English Scientist William Gilbert had published a book on the magnet. Kepler realised that it was a magnetic force that attracted the earth and sun to each other. He also determined that the tides were the result of the magnetic attraction of the earth and the moon. From these observations Kepler postulated three laws of planetary motion.
The Scientific Revolution was in many ways more of an evolution of knowledge than a revolution. Many advances (including Kepler’s) were based on existing ideas. Kepler’s discoveries were blows to the Aristotelian and mediaeval science. Kepler's suggestion was even more challenging to the church than Copernicus’ ideas. He suggested that in addition to the Earth moving round the sun, the hand of the prime mover (God) was not required to govern the movement of the planets. These ideas challenged the theological assumptions of the church and Kepler learned in 1619 that Catholics had been banned from reading some of his writings. Nonetheless, the Scientific Revolution still occurred within the system of Christian belief. Kepler in a probable attempt to appease the church sought to glorify God by demonstrating the consistency, harmony and order of divine creation as expressed in the working of the universe. Like Galileo, Kepler found the Church to be an obstruction to the progress of the revolution. However he had a great deal to contribute towards science and his suggestions against the church aided the Scientific Revolution. Gradually over the years some of continual theories, which went against the theology of the church, would have to be believed. The more people who spoke out against the church the better chance future scientists had for progressing against the theology of the church.
The Scientific Revolution was a very significant period in history. It seemed to push theology into the background and the concept that mankind might one-day master nature, shocked many church officials. Galileo and Kepler were two natural philosophers who contributed to this revolution and their contributions were significant. Their input to the Revolution aided the advancement of science and confirmed the philosophies' belief in the intrinsic value of freedom. If Kepler and Galileo had not been prepared to work against the wishes of the church and set an example to subsequent scientists boundaries in science would not have been crossed and it is unlikely that we would have been as advanced as we are today.
