Public Health In Rome. To what extent was the Roman period an age of progress in public health?
Public Health In Rome. To what extent was the Roman period an age of progress in public health? Introduction Public health was an issue in the Roman period due to the scale of their cities and the spread of disease. The vastness of their empire and the great numbers of soldiers who travelled across it, led to greater communication of illnesses. The emperor and senate realised this, and began to introduce public health measures to reduce the risk of disease. There was a massive amount of progress by the end of the Roman era in public health and great improvements over the Ancient Greek methods. Economy The empire of Rome had very large cities, Rome itself had a population of over 1 million people. Because plagues and disease spread easily throughout the cities, health was a very big issue. The Romans believed that cleanliness would lead to good health. As a practical people, they observed that death rates were higher in and around marshes and swamps. This led the Romans to believe that the causes of illness were, amongst other things: * bad air * bad water * swamps * sewage * debris and a lack of personal cleanliness. As places such as Rome could not avoid some of these conditions unless something was physically done to prevent it, the government implemented the first public health scheme. Bringing fresh water in from the country with aqueducts, having public
The roman army and their weapons.
The roman army and their weapons Organisation The Roman legion comprised some 5500 men. These included a wide range of specialists distributed among the ranks who made each legion virtually self-sufficient. Aside from soldiering the legions constructed roads, forts, temples, aqueducts and canals, they manufactured bricks, the more basic items of arms and armour, they cultivated crops, raised livestock and traded much of their produce with local communities. Since the legion was a highly bureaucratic structure there was a demand for a high degree of literacy amongst large numbers of clerks who provided the administration. Such a large body of men also required regular medical attention and each legionary base contained a hospital run by an educated surgeon enjoying the honorific status of a centurion. The basic subdivision of the legion was the cohort, of which there were ten in each legion. Each cohort was made up from six centuries of approximately eighty men. Within each century there were ten eight-man sections that shared a room in the barracks and a tent while on campaign. The century was commanded by a centurion who was assisted by an optio. It appears that strict seniority applied to the ranking of centurions within the cohort so that the centurion of the sixth century of the cohort would be the most junior while the centurion of the cohort's first century would be
Why was Byzantium ultimately unable to resist the Ottoman onslaught?
Why was Byzantium ultimately unable to resist the Ottoman onslaught? Over its period of existence, from 285AD to 1453, the Byzantines greatest asset was its strength in depth, and its culture. Even before Diocletian partitioned the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire in 285, the east was seen to be richer and stronger than the west. Egypt was the grain store for the empire, whereas Syria and Anatolia were strong and rich, as well as defensible. The Byzantine Empire was stronger than its enemies (with exception of the Ottoman Turks in the later years), and was aided by the fact that their enemies objectives lay in the conquest of territory, rather in the plunder of its riches. This meant than when territory was lost, it was generally in a reasonably similar state when it was recaptured. This example was shown by Mehmed II, who kept the destruction inside Constantinople to a minimum, and then used the city as his new capital after its final end in 1453. Culture, another of Byzantium's major assets, was key in its survival, especially after the nearly fatal fourth crusade in 1204. The idea of a superior culture was even seen during the second centaury. The Greek literature saw a revival, whereas the Latin literature showed decline. Some aspects of the Greek culture, such as religion and language, even survived their Turkish counterparts in the regions that the
The historians of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment were interested only in those parts of the past from which they could draw moral lessons.
The historians of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment were interested only in those parts of the past from which they could draw moral lessons. Were the historians of these periods selective in their area of study? If so why did they select those particular parts of history? Since the question of whether historians narrow down periods to study is undoubtedly yes, the question of why they select those parts is far more relevant. It is a far broader question than might initially appear, for it draws on the wide range of historiographical works, which ask why we study history at all. What methods or criteria do we have in narrowing down what to study? As E.H. Carr points out, 'millions have crossed the Rubicon, but historians tell us that only Caesars crossing was significant'i. We view history from our own present day perspective The question of what constitutes a moral lesson also arises. This also is a matter of interpretation, as there are those who would say that morality extends beyond the purely theological realm. It is more than just a strict religious code but a standard of living for even the secular political world. If this is so, then a much larger part of history is included in this category. Also, if the historian draws no moral lesson from a part of history, is this to say that none can be drawn from it? It then becomes a contemporary and very much political
How did Rome physically attempt to defend the Eastern Frontier from 226 to 363?
How did Rome physically attempt to defend the Eastern Frontier from 226 to 363? The army of Rome and the way in which the Roman Emperors physically defended the Eastern Frontier from 226 to 363 AD underwent a massive change as the result of the chaotic events of the third century, a century that saw very few Roman emperors enjoying long reigns or dying of natural causes. This essay will address the ways in which the Roman's attempted to physically defend the Eastern Frontier and the change in defensive strategy which continued on into the fourth century. It will discuss how the upgrading of the Roman Eastern Frontier during the third and fourth centuries saw the changing of equipment for the troops, the way the troops were conscripted, the strategies and tactics, the way the Romans interacted with their neighbouring empires and the upgrading of the already many existing border forts, making the frontier more defensible. The perimeter defence was introduced by Hadrin at the beginning of the third century and was used by future Roman military. This strategy consisted of low cost and small armies; this meant Rome didn't employ a central reserve to protect the internal empire should the outside perimeter collapse. Rather Rome depended upon a defensive system of networked roads and rivers, through which small special units tasked with interior defence, could quickly travel
Discuss how Tennyson has presented the Victorian age/spirit in Ulysses.
Discuss how Tennyson has presented the Victorian age/spirit in Ulysses. Or, Discuss Tennyson as a representative poet with reference to his poem Ulysses. Alfred Tennyson is often called the most representative poet of Victorian England. Perhaps this is one of the main factors that worked behind his enormous popularity during his life time. Even in Ulysses the main characteristics of Victorian period are clearly visible. Ulysses (published in 1842) was written to console himself after the death of his best friend Arthur Hallam. It is pertinent to mention here that the character of Ulysses has been taken from ancient Greek Mythology. The name Ulysses is the sign of mobility, of refusing limits. Tennyson's own grief and his resolution not to yield to it find their mythic translation in Ulysses. At the outset the main characteristics of Victorian Period (1832 - 1901) should be determined. In politics poor people particularly the working class was pressing for more and more democratic rights. So, there was eventual conflict between the working class and their rich employers. Even in religion, after the publication of Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, scientists were questioning about the exactness of the Bible and what the Christians believed. The Victorians were famous for their passion for morality. They did not like extreme feeling. So, in short, they were very
How did Rome physically attempt to defend the Eastern Frontier from 226 to 363
How did Rome physically attempt to defend the Eastern Frontier from 226 to 363? In providing an answer to how Rome physically protected the Eastern empire between 226AD and 363 AD this essay will first describe the broad changes in defensive strategy that Rome enacted in response to attacks by its enemies. The key drivers of these changes will be detailed along with the key personalities that drove those changes and what effect they had. Changes to the structure and the changes to the physical makeup of static defences will be discussed along with an examination of the key points of the debate that surrounds the concept of defence in depth. At the beginning of the third century a new strategy was developed and employed by Rome's military leadership. Beginning with Hadrian, the revamped Roman military structure was downsized in an attempt to develop a more low cost and low drag military structure. The large central reserve of troops had become economically unviable and the tooth to tail ratio, or the ratio of combat troops to logistical support troops had become unmanageable. As this central reserve was downsized the most obvious strategic issue that came to the forefront was that danger to Rome should the perimeter collapse. To combat this problem a defensive strategy was developed that rested on a networked transport solution of interconnected roads and rivers by which
How did the design of the Colosseum relate to its public function and to its symbolic meaning?
Yvonne Jane Robinson TMA03 Course Code: A(ZX)103 Part 1 How did the design of the Colosseum relate to its public function and to its symbolic meaning? Building started on the Colosseum in 71CE, with the dedication of the first three stages being held in 75CE and completed in 80CE. It was built to accommodate large public spectacles, patronised by the rich and powerful, which were an important part of the Roman culture. There was a need for it to hold large capacity crowds, who would gather to watch the grand ornate shows. Being the centre of the empire it needed to be built on an impressive scale with lots of splendour to symbolize the great wealth and power of Rome. Due to the large crowds generous public access was needed, this was integrated within the design. It was achieved by incorporating enormous piers that carried the weight of the many arches and corridors, needed for access. Visibility for the audience was also of major importance. By designing the building to be round and making the seating tiered, this gave the spectators an unhindered view of the games. The arrangement of the seating also played a major part in the symbolic aspect of the design by allocating seats to the spectators according to their social rank within the Roman society. To support the massive weight of the building and large crowds, different building materials were used. Deep
'A first rate military leader and a second class ruler' How valid is this judgement of Frederick the Great?
'A first rate military leader and a second class ruler' How valid is this judgement of Frederick the Great? Thje historian Cowie called FTG a 'miloitary genius'. He is not alone inthis opinion, even napeloan have [raisedFTG as a leader. Indeed h was succesful in two major wars between 1740 and 1763, earned himself a great military reputation at the timea nd accuired jey areas of land such as silesian and west prussia by his death. So was he then a first-rate military leader? Moreover , was he a second class ruler? Much of his domestic policy had been criticised. Education eform was better in theory than practice, serfdom was not abolished, governmnet remained unreformed, hes ecoonomic policies were old fashioned and the nobiltiys regained oo much power. Indeed FTG left a problomatic legacy fot his untrained successo. Evidence seems to support the quote but there were areas of weaknessin the foreign policy and indeed areas of success in his domestic affairs. In support of the statement, there is evidence in FTG major success with Foreign policy to suggest that he was a first rate military leader. The Austrian wars of succession 1740-48, saw seven countries embroiled on a huge scale war. FTG major victories were at Molowitz and Chotisitz. Mollowiz, was a huge victory for Prussia because they, even though in the face of a huge army from Mt, were successful. Chotisitz was also
An Eternal Legacy - Chrisianity in World History up to the 16th Century.
Christianity: An Eternal Legacy Margot Porter 11B CHW3M: World History to the 16th Century May 12th, 2003 Human history, seen in ancient civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Byzantine and countless others, is a treasure trove of inventions, innovations and ideologies. The Roman Empire, the largest, most influential and most powerful civilization of the ancient world produced many legacies that have changed our modern society forever. It is not surprising then, that out of the greatest empire of the ancient world rose the greatest legacy of the ancient world; Christianity. The indelible mark left by the creation and development of the Christian religion makes it the most significant legacy of the Ancient World. There are countless reasons as to why Christianity's dominance as a legacy is unchallengeable. Firstly, the rich and detailed stories that make up the history of the Christian religion are unparalleled. The spread of Christianity to all four corners of the world was a transfer of ideas and theology that had never been seen before. Finally, and probably most importantly, Christianity's endurance, through the rise and fall of empires, wars, plagues, and technological evolutions, to today is what defines it as the most important legacy of the ancient world. The origins of Christianity, from the early stories of the Old Testament to the life of Jesus Christ
