How far, and why, did traditional Catholicism decline during the reign of Elizabeth?

Alex Jockelson How far, and why, did traditional Catholicism decline during the reign of Elizabeth? Considering that on the accession of Elizabeth I the majority of men and women in England and Wales were Catholic - from the evidence of wills Protestant loyalty was limited to the south-east where even there it represented a minority - and that by the end of the reign English Catholicism had diminished to only one or two percent of the population, it is fair to say that the extent of the decline in traditional Catholicism was great. The reasons for this can be found by splitting the reign into three time periods where the presence and threat of Catholicism differ significantly. An interesting argument has arisen concerning the explanation of the decline of Catholicism. The historian J. Bossy argues that conservative gentry and clerical leadership did not produce any organized resistance to the 1559 settlement and instead allowed the laity to drift into conformity by attending Protestant church services. He goes on to suggest that it was only the later arrival of the seminary priests from Douai and the Jesuits that saved English Catholicism from complete extinction. Another historian C. Haigh counters this suggesting that Catholic survivalism was strong in the 1560s and that its demise can be attributed to 'strategic and logistical errors' made by the seminary priests and the

  • Word count: 1653
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The scale of the raids, the density of the settlements and the degree of destruction have been greatly exaggerated'. Discuss this assessment of Viking activity in England in the ninth and tenth centuries

'The scale of the raids, the density of the settlements and the degree of destruction have been greatly exaggerated'. Discuss this assessment of Viking activity in England in the ninth and tenth centuries. The entry in the northern version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 793 tells how "In this year terrible omens appeared over the land of the Northumbrians...: these were immense lightning flashes and fiery dragons were seen flying in the sky". It goes onto describe how "the ravaging of heathen men miserably destroyed God's church in Lindisfarne through plundering and slaughter". These apocalyptic images helped to support a view of the Vikings, whose name means literally 'pirates', as a mass of (pagan) barbarian invaders who overwhelmed the British Isles. This interpretation of events, notably accepted by Frank Stenton in the 1940s, was (in)famously questioned by Peter Sawyer in an essay of 1958, who argued that the number of invaders, the density of the Danish settlements and, to a certain extent, the degree of Viking destruction had been greatly exaggerated. Sawyer's theory then led to a wave of 'post-revisionism' by historians, including Alfred Smyth, who claim Sawyer's argument is flawed and paints too rosy a picture of Viking activity in England. We must now set out to forge a middle ground between these two sides (for which, Patrick Wormald reminds us, it is necessary

  • Word count: 2801
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Warlords, Artists and Emperors: Power and Authority in Premodern Japan. Ancient Japan Portfolio - commentaries on passages.

Warlords, Artists and Emperors: Power and Authority in Premodern Japan Entry#1 (Week 2): Reading: Bock, F. 'The Rites of Renewal at Ise', Monumental Nipponica, 29 (1974); 55-68. This reading focuses and explores the rites of renewal of the Great Shrine of Ise. Through the reigns of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jito, the Shrine of Ise rose in importance and eventually became the ancestral clam shrine of the Imperial House and later continued to develop as it took on the image of a national shrine and claimed widespread support (p.57). The pure Shinto architecture of this Shrine may exist in other places in Japan yet the affect it has on the area of the Shrine of Ise furthers its unending succession. This reading looks at the significance of the continual and ritual renewal of the Shrine of Ise. This rebuilding is seen as a means of preservation of traditions and culture as even the materials- purified ceremonial axes and saws of ancient style (p.58) - which are used in the rebuilding show key characteristics of the Japanese culture. Religious notions are also preserved through this rebuilding; one example is the 'august mirror' which is place in a sacred container as a symbol of the Sun Goddess which is associated with the origin of the shrine and the kami belief (pp.59-60). To sum it up, the ritual rebuilding of the Shrine of Ise is seen as a symbol of the renewal of life

  • Word count: 1911
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Why was Hadrian's Wall constructed?

Why was Hadrian's Wall constructed? Stuart Edwards 2003 Hadrian's Wall was built between Carlisle in the west and Newcastle in the East. The wall is 55 miles in length. It was constructed in 120 A.D under the order of the visiting Roman emperor Hadrian. The wall was built 80 years after the Roman conquest of Britain. The Roman Empire now at its prime had expanded form a small city state into a large empire spanning most of the ancient world, had just come out of a period of expansion, Hadrian decided that this had to change and ordered defensive frontiers to be built all along the empire's borders. There was an original front line further into Scotland, Antoine's wall, but it was found too rural and distant to supply or support so it was abandoned and the Romans fell back to The Stanegate road. The Stanegate road was built by Agricola and served as a major supply routes for the legionnaires defending the northern frontier Rome normally used natural defences to protect its borders these defensive lines included deserts and rivers but in northern Britain it was built out of stone, which was a common resource in that area. When the wall was being built the resources and the manpower came form the legions guarding the frontier. Each centurion was given a part of the wall to build; along this stretch of wall they would place a hallmark stone so their commander would know who

  • Word count: 1034
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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How and why did America's role in the world change in the 20th century?

Michelle Winship Year 1 Themes in American History and Culture Tutor: Dr. C. Kitching Tuesday 13th May 2003 Essay: How and why did America's role in the world change in the 20th century? How and why did America's role in the world change in the 20th century? During the 20th century it can be seen that America's role in the world changed from an isolationist role to one of intervention. The main change can be seen in America's changing foreign policy. Events that happened in Asia and Europe caused the United States to remake its foreign policy and adapt is role in the world accordingly. It is impossible to assume that America's role in the world will stay how it is today; the role of the United States in global affairs is still under fire. America now appears to have abandoned its policy of isolation, and has seen its role in the world change immensely over the past century. The Monroe Doctrine had been set up by US President James Monroe in 1823. The U.S. promised to not intervene in the internal affairs of Europe and in return Europe should not intervene in American affairs. At the beginning of the 20th century it can be seen that American foreign interests were concentrated on relations with Latin America. After the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1898 America dominated Cuba until US troops left in 1902. The Platt Amendment, authorised America to establish a

  • Word count: 1676
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Examine the role that the financial crisis played in the outbreak ofrevolution in France in 1789.

Question: Examine the role that the financial crisis played in the outbreak of revolution in France in 1789. By: Sasha James. The French revolution was a significant part of French, and European history. It was responsible for the end of the Ancien Regime, and the introduction of a more democratic government. While the financial crisis played an imperative role in the outbreak of the revolution, there were also other contributing factors. The financial crisis played a crucial role in the outbreak of the revolution. The financial state of France before the revolution was detrimental. The total revenue for 1796 calculated by Calonne, the controller general of finances, was estimated to be 475 million livres, while the expenditure for was estimated to be 587 million livres. The economy of France was at a deficit. There were many reasons for the deficit of the economy, with the main reason being the increase in state borrowings. These loans taken by the French incurred large annual interests and repayments that the treasury was obligated to pay. The debts that were acquired were so excessive that it cost almost half of the annual revenue. Another reason was that the French government borrowed money on terms less favourable that the British or Dutch because in France there was no publicly supported bank through which government credit could be cheaply channelled. French

  • Word count: 839
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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‘Wellington’s Waterloo’.

'WELLINGTON'S WATERLOO' The French Revolution played a significant role in the history of Britain. The ideal of intellectual enlightenment and the idea of an end of a corrupt and antiquated government and monarchist rule, swept across Europe from the summer of 1789. This followed the highly symbolic storming of the Bastille, and the Declaration of the Rights of man. However, when the Revolution degenerated into 'The terror' of Robespierre's government by fear and terrorism, intellectual joy turned into conservatism, and a feeling of betrayal. Politically, the social consequences were profound. As Britain staggered under the shock of Industrial Revolution, Urbanisation and the creation of a working class, the authoritarian response to the French Revolution, was a series of repressive acts of parliament and social measures, like the suspending of the writ of habeas corpus. Just as the new society cried out for help, Reform was effectively quashed for thirty years. The French Revolution also gave rise from Corsican outcast to Emperor, of Napoleon Bonaparte. This man perhaps affected Britain the most, and much as been written about this legendary figure and his wars of aggression. The object of this essay is, however, to tell the story of Bonaparte's final fall, in terms of military history and one engagement, which saw Bonaparte meet an equally illustrious figure, his

  • Word count: 5593
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Which better explains Britain's success in the Napoleonic Wars: military and naval power or gold and diplomacy?

Which better explains Britain's success in the Napoleonic Wars: military and naval power or gold and diplomacy? During the French and Napoleonic Wars Britain's main objectives in defeating France were to blockade the French coastline and attack enemy colonies by means of naval power, fight a war on the continent using small units of British forces, plus pay subsidies to allies; and lastly was to support opponents of the Revolution inside of France. The naval strategy was successful, the others less so. In the early nineteenth century Britain had one of the smallest army of all the major European powers. Although through tight discipline, shrewd tactics and sound command. This recognised Britain as being a force to be reckoned with. The strength of the British armies tactics and commend was a major factor in the downfall of Napoleon's empire. Arthur Wellesley (Duke of Wellington), was in charge of the British army, he was a great tactician and strategist. When he became the leader he created the opportunity of undertaking offensive operations against Napoleon on a scale that was not before thought possible. Napoleon Bonaparte's army was thought of as being invincible throughout the whole of Europe. However Britain's successful Peninsular campaign proved that this was wrong. The British army however did not fight alone and for most of the earlier years of the wars

  • Word count: 874
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Diocletian and Constantine

Diocletian and Constantine Around the year AD300, the Roman Empire was huge; it stretched from Northumberland to the Red Sea. However, the population was not evenly spread. There was a sign of decrease. There are many reasons for this: natural disasters (e.g. plague, famine). Civil wars broke out, barbarians were attacking, there was a constant need for money for imperial uses and the emperors were frequently changing. During these years, the two most important and successful emperors that attempted to solve these problems were Diocletian and Constantine. What was unusual about Diocletian was that he remained securely in power for 21 years. Diocletian' s first move was to exalt the person of the emperor (himself), hoping that the throne would be safer. He wanted himself to be worshiped and praised like a god. He recruited barbarians into the army; this solved some of the problems caused by them. Diocletian was a very clever man, whenever he thought that there might be danger, not only from the barbarians but also from the discontented soldiers, he would move to another place where he thought it might be safe. Diocletian also decided that the empire was too big to be governed by one man. Therefore, he divided it into two. He appointed a fellow soldier to govern the western half while he took charge of the eastern. He then subdivided the parts for two assistants. During his

  • Word count: 485
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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To what extent was the breakdown of the Soviet-American "Grand Alliance" 1946-1948 the inevitable result of a fundamental clash of interests over the future of Europe?

To what extent was the breakdown of the Soviet-American "Grand Alliance" 1946-1948 the inevitable result of a fundamental clash of interests over the future of Europe? Insecurity and vulnerability were two characteristics which dominated foreign policy in the post-war era, triggering a spiralling deterioration in US-Soviet relations. This nature of insecurity was rooted in the Second World War where beneath the surface of the Grand Alliance, tensions were rife. It is easy to look at the post-war years in retrospect but it is important when analysing foreign policy in this era to think how the events which arose would have appeared to the US and Soviets at the time and in order to gain a full understanding, one must examine the limits and constraints on the options they had by incorporating both domestic and international factors into the equation. Underlying tensions throughout the war may have provided the framework for declining cooperation between the powers but in essence it was the constant drive for security in the post war years which provided the bones of contention which ultimately led to the breakdown in US-Soviet relations. It was primarily in Europe where the two superpowers chose to assert their interests in order to protect their borders from future threats. In 1945 numerous states suffered defeat and there was an obvious shift in the balance of power in

  • Word count: 2427
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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