Is Santayana's vision of a rational society compatible with liberal democracy?

Santayana: identity and laughter: towards a philosophy of modesty Tutorial question: Is Santayana's vision of a rational society compatible with liberal democracy? From 1889 to 1912 Santayana taught at Harvard University. He was Hyde Lecturer at Sorbonne, Paris, in 1905-06. Santayana's lectures on the philosophy of history formed the foundation of THE LIFE OF REASON (1905-06), an interpretation of the role of reason in manifold activities of the human spirit. According to Santayana happiness is the good for humankind and is best secured by the harmonization of our various interests by the use of reason. From this basis he asked "In which of its adventures would the human race, reviewing its whole experience, acknowledge a progress and a gain," and focused his survey on society, religion, art and science. In 1923 he published SCEPTICISM AND ANIMAL FAITH, in which he formulated ideas of scepticism. According to Santayana, all rational processes are expressions of animal compulsion to believe certain things, such as the existence of matter. We have an irresistible urge ('animal faith') to believe in the independence of the external world. Further, Santayana distinguishes between existence and being - the latter has four realms: essence, matter, truth and spirit. Matter is external to consciousness, and all existence is grounded in matter. Spirit and body are realizations of

  • Word count: 2675
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The Sumerian Lifestyle and Their Contributions to the Modern World.

The Sumerian Lifestyle and Their Contributions to the Modern World By Saad Aqil The world without its greatest invention-the wheel-is a world that does not exist. Imagine what it would be like if such an important invention as the wheel did not come into being? Or, just think how it would be if the concept of writing had not been introduced? I believe that such integral inventions make much of our lives today. The Sumerian civilization was not just a civilization, but also a foundation for many civilizations that followed, which adopted and implemented many of its developments and inventions. What I find ironic is that being one of the first civilizations ever, "having existed from 4000 BC to 2000 BC"1, it was also the innovative catalyst that first introduced certain inventions, such as those mentioned above, that are used in the everyday life of almost every human being today. "It was one that had to struggle for its existence owing to the many floods that often overwhelmed the city of Sumer, which was located between the Tigris River and Euphrates River. However, regardless, life did not cease to exist owing to these deluges for they brought vegetation and agricultural abundance, which attracted its many inhabitants." 2 The skills of the Sumerian-speaking farmers also rouse awe in me for they formed small communities to drain the swamps, and direct the water from

  • Word count: 1558
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Explain and Assess Descartes Ontological Argument.

Explain and Assess Descartes Ontological Argument Descartes' second argument for the existence of God is similar to one that was used by Saint Anselm. The name of the argument was coined by contemporary philosophers after Descartes passed away. Ontology is defined as the branch of metaphysics that deal with the nature of being. Descartes' Ontological argument of the existence of God is thus based on the nature or essence of God. Descartes was reluctant to use this argument as he thought it might be taken as a sophism. This is because in general, the essence of metaphysical things is separate from their existence. The ontological argument is a priori proof of the existence of God. This means that it does not rely on any effect (like the idea of God) in the third meditation which has to be caused by God in order to prove His existence. Rather Descartes argues that existence is part of the essence of God. Descartes does this by using the triangle as an example. Whenever one imagines a triangle it follows that there are properties attributed to it. For instance it has three sides, the sum of its angles must equal two right angles and its greatest side subtends its greatest angle. These ideas or essence of the triangle are independent of us and are clearly recognised by the intellect whether we want to or not. Likewise Descartes argues that existence cannot be

  • Word count: 1573
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The evil eye bead

Table of Contents - Abstract..............................................................................................................1 2- Introduction........................................................................................................1 3- Common sense about the evil eye bead.......................................................... ..3 4- The evil eye bead in term of axis of symetrey...................................................6 5- The evil eye bead in term of multiculturalism...................................................9 6- Conclusion........................................................................................................11 7- References........................................................................................................12 8- Appendix........................................................................................................... ABSTRACT This paper explores the evil eye bead, used by many cultures to provide protection from the evil eye,in tems of axis of symetry, multiculturalism and common sense. The evil eye bead is an object which has been developed because of the evil eye bead. Thus, this belief has been focused on this study owing to the relationship of it with the evil eye bead. In this paper, it is suggested that there are three shadows of the evil eye bead; anxiouty abouth

  • Word count: 3611
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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What are the philosophical problems associated with belief in life after death?

What are the philosophical problems associated with belief in life after death? In any discussion of life after death, the relationship between body and soul is crucial. According to one view the soul is active in, but ultimately independent of, the body, and survives when the body 'perishes'. In the other view, the soul and body are made for each other, and eventually become reunited by way of bodily resurrection. The latter view is more in line with biblical tradition, which saw body and soul forming a single unity, and is confirmed for 'believers' in the resurrection of Jesus. Both views are challenged by atheistic materialism, which holds that body and soul are two sides of a single coin, one merely the principle of the other, and that both perish together on the death of the individual. Plato put forward a dualistic account, in which the body and soul are two separate entities. Although they combine in a human life, the soul lives on immortality after the death of the body. Plato's dualism is consistent with his understanding of reality. He gave an illustration of this in his 'allegory of the cave': the majority of us are like prisoners in a cave, where shadows cast by a fire are seen projected on a wall. The prisoners in the cave think that the shadows are the full reality, all there is. Only by making the effort can one escape from the cave and discover the truth.

  • Word count: 1041
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Is citizenship tied to a particular political and moral culture? If so, are citizenship and cultural/ moral rights compatible?

Is citizenship tied to a particular political and moral culture? If so, are citizenship and cultural/ moral rights compatible? This essay will reflect on relationship between cultural rights and citizenship. However, before thinking about it, one should clearly understand what does cultural rights and citizenship mean. Citizenship is a legal or political status. It also means being a member of particular state. In this sense brings with it certain rights and responsibilities that are defined in law, such as the right to vote, the responsibility to pay tax and so on.1 Cultural rights contain of the right of access to cultural life, right to participate in cultural life, the right to cultural identity, to cultural survival, to use one's language, as well as to access and establish media in one's own language,2 the right to be educated in one's own language and in culturally appropriate ways,3 the right to protection of cultural heritage, and the right to forms of development which are consistent with culture.4 There are 194 countries in the world in which people, the citizens of them, have unique culture and ethics. At the same time, it cannot be told that there is only one nationality living in each country. As known, there was constant people's movement during the centuries. So one country has majorities and minorities. These groups can have can have different cultural

  • Word count: 1245
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The story of The Metamorphosis is one of loneliness and horror. Kafka.

The story of The Metamorphosis is one of loneliness and horror. Kafka wrote in a fashion that allows a reader to interpret the story in a way that may be different each time it is read. Gregor Samsa, a young, hard working man, is transformed overnight into an insect and his entire world, has been turned up side down. The purpose of his existence is only to serve his family, but he never really gets the respect he deserves. The story describes how unappreciated Gregor is being treated which reveals the existence of selfishness and selflessness within the Samsa's family. Gregor is very important to the family's welfare. As being the only working member, he has no choice but to take care of all the family responsibilities. For so long he wants to quit his work, as he complains on page 4 "oh God, what a grueling job I've picked...I've got the torture of traveling, worrying about changing trains, eating miserable food at all hours, constantly seeing new faces, no relationships that last or get more intimate." But he persuades himself every time by saying, "Besides, I have to provide for my parents and my sister". Gregor knows that the future of the family is dependent on him, thus he selflessly gives up his own interest and is enslaved by all of these obligations he has been given. But the family never concerns about him, all that mattered to them is what Gregor is able to

  • Word count: 780
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Descartes – Meditation I

Descartes - Meditation I Descartes' " general demolition of my opinions" is probably based upon some sort of realization that things are not comfortable or the way they ought t be. He seems to feel the need for not necessarily altering his opinions, but merely finding some truth and reasoning behind his opinions, simply proving them right or wrong based upon what he learns. "I realized that once in my life I had to raze everything to the ground and begin again from original foundations, if iI wanted to establish anything firm and lasting in the sciences"(351). It comes across as maybe a turning point or midlife crisis for Descartes as he projects stating, ""The task seemed enormous, and I was waiting until I reached a point in my life that was so timely that no more suitable time for undertaking these plans of action would come to pass"(315). Descartes makes it very clear that he is not content on what he knows thus far in his life and that he must find some proof to what he already knows or some reasoning in general for why things are the way they are. Descartes first attack is on the human senses and how they are deceiving. He moves deeper and beyond sense immediately and the idea of "setting". "I am sitting here next to the fire, wearing my winter dressing gown, that I am holding this sheet of paper in my hands...But on what grounds could one deny that these hands

  • Word count: 521
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Moral wisdom seems to be as little connected to knowledge of ethical theory as playing good tennis is to knowledge of physics" (Emrys Westacott). To what extend should our actions be guided by our theories in ethics and elsewhere?

"Moral wisdom seems to be as little connected to knowledge of ethical theory as playing good tennis is to knowledge of physics" (Emrys Westacott). To what extend should our actions be guided by our theories in ethics and elsewhere? Ethics are rules set by a society to guide people's actions. They depict a general understanding of what is right and wrong in a society. Following ethical views is usually considered as being right, while rejecting them is usually conceived as being wrong. However, different societies have different rules of ethics. These are based on differences in their culture. Therefore, ethical views are not universally the same in all respects and vary amongst societies. Since ethical theories have no single identity to be defined by, how can they guide our actions? Surely they cannot because there would be different guidelines in whatever society you are in. Herein lies where the standards of ethical absolutism and ethical relativism arise from. Ethical absolutism states there are definite rights and wrongs that apply universally. Ethical relativism states there are no true rights and wrongs to follow. In a sense, both standards are correct to an extent. There are rights and wrongs that apply to most, if not all societies. Although there are instances where an action can be both right and wrong, depending on what perspective of the action is being observed

  • Word count: 1422
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Should We Legislate Morality?

Should We Legislate Morality? If something is immoral should it also be illegal? In America, we should not pass laws where the primary concern is morality; we should only pass laws which have civil values as their primary concern. Civil values in this case are values which either ensures the safety or order of a society, such as, traffic laws or zoning laws. Also involved are more important values such as freedom, democracy, and liberty which have been laid out by our founding fathers. I have two basic reasons for holding this view. First, we live in a secular society. There is a supposed wall of separation between Church and State, and I think rightly so. Church and State should only be united in a theocracy America is not one of those and could not become one without changing the character of the nation. However, I am aware that the moral basis for the tradition of English law that the U.S. legislative and judicial systems are deeply rooted in, are based on essentially Christian principles. As I think that morality without Christ is ultimately empty, then to legislate true morality would be to legislate Christianity, thus violating the Church and State separation. Seeking to mend the religious backsliding in the United States by this sort of method is not right. It is trying to get the government to cover a moral problem by redefining it through political change rather

  • Word count: 1235
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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