The Dialectic of Enlightenment.

I. The Dialectic of Enlightenment A. The Project of Enlightenment The self-proclaimed project of Enlightenment is the subjectification of the individual - the overcoming of all those elements which militate against the autonomous ego's establishment of itself as a free and self-determining agent, an agent unencumbered by the mystical forces which, in pre-enlightened times, penetrate its consciousness and degrade its worldly existence. A definition of myth: that other-worldly realm in which the contradictions of this world are resolved in an illusory totality at the level of consciousness. For the individual to establish herself as an autonomous subject is clearly to rid herself of mythic thought, to take back the actual conditions of her life and confront the world as that which it really is - the individual must know the world, for only in knowing, only in rational and informed comprehension, is agency possible. To be free is to not only act, but to act according to the dictates of your own will, a pure will free from constraint, a will able to recognize and interpret the concrete situations of its existence as they are, shrouded not in superstition nor myth. To Enlightenment myth is anthropomorphism[]; it anticipates Feuerbach in viewing myth as nothing more than the projection of individuals' fears onto a fictitious sphere. By understanding nature, by analyzing and

  • Word count: 7670
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Nagarjuna was a great contributor to the Mahayana tradition.

Nagarjuna was a great contributor to the Mahayana tradition. He acted as the interpreter and clarifier of the tradition's texts clarifying the notion of the Middle way as offered and taught by Buddha. Nagarjuna's system of the Middle Way greatly influenced not only the Mahayana tradition but also would influence the future developing schools of thought that would originate from the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, namely the Zen Buddhist tradition. Nagarjuna's philosophy of the Middle Way is manifested in the methods of the Zen Buddhist tradition. There are fundamental elements in Nagarjuna's philosophy of the Middle Way that are manifested in the Zen Buddhist tradition and way of thought. A case can be made for the Zen tradition being a practical application of Nagarjuna's Middle Way. Hsueh-li Cheng in one of his published works has already explored the proposition that Zen is a practical application of the Middle Way in 1979.1 The aim of this paper is to build upon the foundation Hsueh-li Cheng has already laid down to bring closer the ties of a notion of a Middle Way in the thought of Nagarjuna and Zen. The approach taken will examine how the central tenets of the Middle Way as described by Nagarjuna are manifested in the application of Zen discipline. The teachings that will be highlighted from Nagarjuna's philosophy of the Middle Way will be emptiness (sunyata), the

  • Word count: 5573
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Reality, Morality, and the Afterlife: A Comparison of Christian and Bhuddist Thought

David Thatcher (# 4095075) Vernon Martin RELS201 23 May 2010 Reality, Morality, and the Afterlife: A Comparison of Christian and Buddhist Thought Do we go to heaven or hell after death, or do we come back as another human being or even an animal? Such a question reminds us of one of the major differences between Christianity and Buddhism-the concept of the afterlife. Another major difference lies in the origin of these two religions. Buddhism developed from the teachings of one Siddhartha Gautama in the sixth century BCE, while Christianity came from a man named Jesus in Roman Palestine who claimed to be God (Toropov and Buckles 200, 71). This paper will explore how the Buddhist and Christian concepts of reality affect their view of the present world and the afterlife, resulting in different approaches to truth and morality. The Christian Concept of Reality The Christian concept of true reality is rooted in divine revelation. In John 17:17, Christ speaking to God the Father says, "Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth" (The Harper Collins Study Bible). Christ further promised to send a Holy Spirit to guide them into truth: "When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth; for he will not speak on his own, but will speak whatever he hears, and he will declare to you the things that are to come" (The Harper Collins Study Bible, John 16.13).

  • Word count: 3758
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the Western world

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the Western world during the 17th and 18th century; it was characterized as the age of reason. It was also composed of the scientific revolution, reason, nature, GOD, and man, which developed into a world perception that initiated radical improvements in art, politics, philosophy, theology and science. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe were periods of important and dramatic changes in the way many people saw and understood the world. Not only did people begin to see the physical world as operating in a vastly different way from the way they had previously thought it operated, but also some European people were beginning to believe that the methods for discovering such new information could be applied in such a way that the new knowledge would be more powerfully accurate than knowledge had previously been. The first disciplines to be affected by these changes were mathematics and physics. Eventually, the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment also greatly influenced the understanding of political, economic, and social behavior. Several individuals played a significant role during the creation of the Enlightenment. Philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, and Immanuel Kant who believed that human rationale could not be used to fight the lack of knowledge, fallacy, and improve

  • Word count: 3630
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The Eighteenth century saw a radical change in the way the church and state cooperated in many European countries.

The Eighteenth century saw a radical change in the way the church and state cooperated in many European countries. This phenomenon formed part of the Enlightenment for both Europeans and Jews and was a movement based on rationality. It was a process many social scientists called 'Modernisation'1 and it affected the Jews more than any other people. Jews in pre-Enlightenment Europe were seen as 'aliens' 2 who lived in one area yet distanced themselves from the wider community. They lived under different rules, paid special taxes and were subject to a range of legal disabilities as well as often being committed to ghettos. This essay will focus on the significance of the prominent figures of the Haskalah and Enlightenment for Jewish-Christian relations with particular orientation towards Jewish views of Christianity. The Haskalah or Jewish Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that started in Europe around the 1770s and lasted until the 1880s. This rational movement had a distinctly Jewish nature and was stimulated by the European Enlightenment. The Haskalah increased secularization of Jewish life through studying about secular life, secular subjects, and emphasising European languages and not just Hebrew, this particularly happened in Germany. All this was because of the long for Jewish emancipation and ultimately aided in the creation of the Reform and Zionist movement.

  • Word count: 3606
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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What is meant by the phrase 'The normative content of modernity'? Is it a valid notion?

UNIVERSITY OF EAST LONDON DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY THE SOCIOLOGY OF IDENTITY AND DIFFERENCE: SO323 UNIT LEADER: BOB CANNON ESSAY QUESTION: WHAT IS MEANT BY THE PHRASE 'THE NORMATIVE CONTENT OF MODERNITY'? IS IT A VALID NOTION? The Western definition of modernity as inspired by certain Judeo-Christian realities has prompted questions whether or not modernity is a Western project and this has in turn lead to intense debate about the moral character of the project and also raised questions whether its normative content may have been different if it had not taken place in Europe. This essay will first describe the project of modernity highlighting its main themes and how it is claimed to have replaced the 'dark ages' of traditional, feudal society with a new social order. Using the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers such as Kant and Rousseau, the essay will elaborate on how these themes helped invent the modern Western notions of human rights and individual equality and put them on a secular and universal, as opposed to religious sectarian basis. As the essay explores the nature, limits, and validity of modernity as a western project, it will then focus on the ideas and arguments put across by Habermas and Foucault because they are representative of the modernist and postmodernist arguments in the current debate about the normative content of modernity, a

  • Word count: 3352
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Buddhisms: Yogas

Sunrita Sen Honors 118 Professor Timothy Knepper 03/10/2009 Explicate the four paths to release and union (yogas) contained in the Bhagavad-Gita. Are any of these paths alone sufficient? Are any of these paths intrinsically preferable? Is this Gita internally consistent on this matter? If so, how? If not, why? One of the points that the Gita is well known for is its suggestion of four ways or paths to release and union (yoga) with Krishna who is also referred to as the Lord. The four paths Krishna suggests to Arjun through various conversations, in the course of the Gita, are Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Raja Yoga (Dhyana Yoga) and Bhakti Yoga. According to Krishna, these are the four separate paths to achieving release and union but in the course of my paper I will try to prove that none of these paths, by themselves, can help an individual attain that goal. However, certain paths seem to be intrinsically more preferable than others. The Gita is very specific about the precedence of Bhakti Yoga over and above all the others. It also places Raja (Dhyana) Yoga as second best to Bhakti and Karma and Jnana Yoga on a more or less even plane after Raja. I will try to show through examples, how this is elaborated on within the Gita itself. I will also try to show, however, that a blending of these paths can make the goal of union far more achievable and

  • Word count: 3319
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Religion is both a problemwhere its structures of dominance have oppressed women, as well as the solution where its vision of liberation has generated powerful movements for social change. (Eck & Devaki, 1986)

Word Count: 2951 THEO:2280 Student Id:200539456 “Religion is both a problem…where its structures of dominance have oppressed women, as well as the solution where its vision of liberation has generated powerful movements for social change” (Eck & Devaki, 1986) Since time immemorial, women have been considered as an oppressed group and have been controlled by patriarchal societies. Less interest was shown towards the rights, needs, and wishes of women in society. Despite the profound role that women perform in society including being a dutiful wife, daughter and mother, little importance has been given to their liberty and independence. Women were considered as inferior and were ruled by male members of the family. There are a number of factors that affect the status of women in any society. Among the numerous factors that contribute towards the change in social lives of women, one major factor is their religion. Eck and Devaki (1986) have described “Religion is both a problem…where its structures of dominance have oppressed women, as well as the solution where its vision of liberation has generated powerful movements for social change.” They pinpoint religion as the main contributor of problems faces by women, which has sometimes led way for future development of social order, this notion

  • Word count: 3314
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Why were the topics of human nature and morality so important in the enlightened thought?

Why were the topics of human nature and morality so important in the enlightened thought? Up to the eighteenth century Western Europe, Christianity was the stronghold and guide for issues concerning life in general. To be more specific, religion was the long rooted base for morality and had its own description of human nature. Diverse factors contributed to the destabilisation of the Church's status quo, thus enabling the expression of individual thought. In fact, Christianity not any longer detained the monopole over human lifestyles, leading to the rise of a vast debate relating to the questions of how to lead a life and man's position in the universe. Naturally, when looking throughout mankind history there have always been discussions and conflicts within the institutions and there have been changes. Nevertheless, what happened during the Age of Reason is incomparable with previous ages as Reason became conscious, and not any longer only accessible to aristocracy and the Church, but also to a rising bourgeoisie. The first part of my essay demonstrates the importance of the religious institution (establishment), as well as some socio-economical factors that have participated in the weakening of Christianity. These aspects are believed to have led to the emancipation of Reason, therefore to the debate of a new society. The question is whether morals and the perception of

  • Word count: 3243
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Compare and Contrast the Representation of Enlightenment in "The Matrix" and "American Beauty." How do these films represent enlightenment and what difference does enlightenment make to the characters of Neo and Lester Burnham?

Compare and Contrast the Representation of Enlightenment in "The Matrix" and "American Beauty." How do these films represent enlightenment and what difference does enlightenment make to the characters of Neo and Lester Burnham? Enlightenment is represented in very different forms in both of these films. This is not merely because one is science fiction and the other is about a dysfunctional family in a happy American suburb, but it is also portrayed by various film techniques and the portrayal of the characters themselves. However, there are also similarities between the two characters as they both seek enlightenment, as they are not only insecure but also unsure of what their place on earth is and why they are meant to be here. The answer from each movie is very different to this question but as a result of their enlightenment both characters achieve a state of relative contentment although for how long this will remain is unknown. American Beauty initially pokes fun at suburbia so as to allow the audience to realise the situation that Lester Burnham is facing. It quickly describes the suburban houses and the products their owners have the need to fill them with. Cyril Connolly described suburbia as, "the incubator of apathy and delirium" (quoted in: Carey, 1992: 51). This therefore sets the scene for the dysfunctional family with the male going through a mid-life

  • Word count: 2754
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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