Whilst relatively small numbers of people suffered at the hands of the Inquisition much had already been achieved in terms of orthodoxy. By the time of Charles’s accession to the throne, Spain was already one of the most orthodox states in Europe. The total number of the Jews and Moors only accounted for around ten percent of the Spanish population and when Charles became king many had emigrated or converted to Catholicism.
Protestantism was the last of the great problems which the Spanish Inquisition was called upon to face and the first which it more or less adequately solved(2). Whilst the vast majority of the Catholic populace were little affected by the inquisition, Protestants within Spain were heavily punished and persecuted. Those who escaped punishment moved elsewhere where they were able to discuss their ideas more freely. The mingling of mystical, Erasmian and heretical influences made the 1520s a unique period of both freedom and tension(3). The 1520s however was also a decade of change that saw the eradication of the Spanish Illuminism and Erasmianism movements. Illuminism was a branch of mysticism and its followers believed that they could put themselves in direct communication with God. It was in these moments of direct communication that they believed that they were incapable of sin. They used this time to indulge in alternative sexual practises and other such sins. In addition, they believed that good works were useless. Such beliefs clearly opposed the Catholic faith. It became particularly threatening when Illuminism had spread to many towns in New Castile. The Inquisition had recently become more powerful under the Inquisitor General Cardinal Cisneros and had taken over local tribunals. This new increase in power and control meant that the inquisition quickly assumed power to eliminate the illuminist movement. The Illuminists were disorganised and small in number; unsurprisingly the Illuminism was quickly destroyed. Members were punished and the leaders, Isabel de la Cruz and Pedro de Alcaraz were arrested.
The destruction of Illuminism focused attention on other protestant movements. Erasmianism came under suspicion as it was an alien doctrine that had sprouted from abroad. Foreign influence from the empire was resented and may explain why Erasmianism treated with so much suspicion. Charles’s empire was vast, as both king of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor he had many commitments. The Spaniards disliked the fact that their king was often absent, constantly dealing with religious, mainly protestant and military threats predominantly from France and the Ottoman Empire. This may explain why Erasmianism was disliked. It was a sophisticated doctrine that was very popular amongst Spanish intellectuals. Ironically even Charles V, Alonso Manrique, Archbishop of Seville and the Inquisitor General were supporters of Erasmianism. Despite their power they could do little to make Erasmianism acceptable at time of such narrow and strict orthodoxy(4). It focused on inward aspects of religion and therefore denounced ceremonies, a major part of the catholic faith. The battle between the traditionalists and the Erasmians lasted for several decades yet the traditionalist eventually triumphed. It is clear the Protestants had been denied the basic person freedom of worship. They were forced to follow the Catholic faith or face further punishment at the hands of the Inquisition.
It can be seen that the Illuminists and Erasmians were denied the right to freedom of worship and the Inquisition effectively and quickly disgraced its teachings and members. Both however, like many Protestant movements in Spain, were small in number and its followers disorganised. For instance there were believed to be fewer than fifty members of the Illuminism movement and despite the popularity of the Erasmianism movement it was only studied by the intellectual elite who made up a small number of the Spanish population(5).
Therefore, the number of people affected by this religious persecution, and the latter’s impact on the overall secular life of Spain was limited. Therefore, it would be an exaggeration to maintain that the elimination of heresy was at the expense of personal freedoms as such a small number of people suffered.
The effects of Charles’ reign on religious freedoms is further undermined when one considers that the freedom of worship had effectively been eradicated during the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella when covivencia came to an end.
.
The creation of the printing press in the fifteenth century meant that more books were being circulated than ever before. This represented a potential threat as the previously high level of illiteracy in pre-Renaissance Spain meant that the church influenced much of the population’s attitudes and beliefs. More widespread and cheaper reading materials, not allied to Catholic or Spanish values, could promote alternative views that might undermine the established order. Charles was determined to not allow protestant influences to enter the Peninsula via this medium, as it had done in the rest of his empire. He wanted to ensure that the Spanish people were not reading heretical works that had filtered across borders. It wasn’t however, until 1546 that an index of banned works was compiled and implemented. People were restricted to what they could read and booksellers were limited in what they could sell. In addition, authors no longer had the right of opinion as their work would be condemned if their views seemed heretical. Many authors believe that renaissance Spain, wide open to foreign influence was transformed into the semi-closed Spain of the Counter Reformation(6) and that Spain was effectively cut off from foreign influence, as from 1558 Inquisitors were placed at sea ports and confiscated many books that arrived on foreign ships.
The index was clearly aimed to reduce personal freedoms of choice and expression; and yet the extent to which it affected people through Charles’s reign is debatable. Firstly, many books on the Index were not accessible to Spanish people as most had never been available or published in the Peninsula. Secondly, there was such opposition to the index that booksellers continued to sell banned books as they believed that the criteria that determined a heretical book were faulty(7). The Index was introduced in the latter half of Charles’s reign and the process of establishment was slow. It took many years for an index to be placed in every bookshop across the country and even then it was difficult to enforce. In Barcelona, banned books continued to be on sale years after appearing on the index(8). It is evident therefore, that the Index was not properly enforced until Philip’s reign and that the effect on the Spanish people during the reign of Charles was minimal. People still enjoyed freedoms concerning choice of literature and freedom of expression.
Another popular view is that the Index had a devastating effect on education during Charles’s reign. Restrictions were imposed on theological and devotional studies(9) and book supplies were supposedly limited. Despite such claims it is evident that scholars suffered little at the hands of the inquisition between the years of 1516 to 1556. They were free to travel to any foreign university and it was only difficulties of distance, money and language that prevented Spaniards from crossing frontiers to other foreign universities. In addition it must be remembered that only the wealthy went to university. Thus the potential exposure to alternative orthodoxies or dogma was limited to only a small tranche of Spanish society. Ferdinand and Isabella had managed to gain significant control over the Spanish Catholic Church and they ensured that the standard of education for priests was high; so as to guarantee piety and gratitude amongst the Spanish clergy. The majority of Spaniards had a limited education and many were illiterate. Most common people received a basic education through the Church. Such people continued practicing their superstitious Catholic based faith and therefore remained unaffected by the banning of certain books.
Furthermore it can be said that the Index affected very few people within Spain and the freedom of choice of literary works remained almost unaffected. Only the intellectual elite who had access to foreign literature suffered.
The matter of Limpieza de sangré began to become more important towards the end of the fifteenth century. During the reign of Charles the status of pure blood had become an obsession throughout Spain. It had become evident that being a loyal Catholic was simply not enough; pure Christian ancestry would gain upper most respect in Spanish society. It was clear that most Spanish families had Jewish or Converso blood and this effectively meant that the right of fair employment was effectively damaged. The exaggerated importance of pure blood caused a general sense of insecurity within Spanish society; the testimony of only one malevolent witness could ruin a family’s reputation(10). It encouraged blackmail and denunciation and was often used to settle personal conflicts. The aristocracy were particularly badly affected by the new obsession. Noble ancestry was far easier to trace than that of a simple merchant or peasant and it meant that in some cases people of a lower class were chosen above those from the aristocracy. This meant that in some institutions employment was no longer based on meritocracy but instead on pure Christian ancestry. For example, Charles appointed a man named Siliceo to the see of Toledo despite his humble origins. He was of pure blood and this further confirmed the fear that pure blood was valued far higher than meritocracy, social status or family name. The Statute of Limpeiza became enforced during Charles’s reign. It meant that purity of the blood was essential for office in the Inquisition or secular organisation as well as entry to a religious community.
Whilst purity of blood did see the removal of certain personal freedoms and limited individual aspirations, once again one has to examine the number of people that it affected and the overall impact on Spanish society. It is evident that the upper classes suffered the most. Their families were easy to trace and many had at least one Converso or Jewish relative. It can also be concluded however that the upper classes did suffer. Clerical offices and university places were no longer available for people with ‘impure blood’ yet the nobility were the minority in Spain where most of the population were peasants working off an agricultural industry.
In contrast, the lower classes prospered, few families had family records and they could claim pure blood status. This enabled some people of humble origins to climb the social ladder. Moreover, very few institutions used purity of the blood as means of accepting employees and people were not punished by the inquisition for having Converso ancestry. Therefore it can be argued that it was only the minority upper classes that may have suffered, and the extent to which they would have disadvantaged would have been minimal as few institutions used the statute of limpieza.
In summary, despite the misconception that the inquisition became more powerful during Charles’s reign one must consider that the Index of banned books and Limpeiza de Sangré were in fact confirmed as royal policy by Philip II. It can be assumed therefore that in reality such policies had limited impact in Charles’s reign.
The inquisition was an institution that had few boundaries. The power of the Inquisitor had practically scarce any bounds but his own personal discretion11. The auto de fés or acts of faith were elaborate ceremonies designed at punishing heretics. Application of punishments by the Inquisition has often been depicted in a bad light. Torture was commonly used to extract confession as the crime of heresy was difficult to prove, confession was sought in all cases and from the thirteenth century onwards the employment of torture by the Holy Office was used to gain a confession at the expense of barbaric customs(12). In addition the accused sometimes had little knowledge of their crime or punishment until the actual day of the auto. During Charles’s reign, the accused lost access to the law. The growing caution of the holy office meant that prisoners were no longer allowed to choose their own defence lawyer. Instead they had to use special lawyers who were nominated by the Inquisition. This meant that they would not defend their client to the best of their ability as it would have seemed suspicious for an official of the Inquisition to protect a suspected heretic.
It must be remembered however, that trials similar to those in criminal courts today did not exist in the sixteenth century. In Inquisition courts no cross examination took place as today, but instead a secret set of questions were posed with repetitive application that sometimes caused victims to confess even if they were innocent.(13) It can be concluded that criminal trials were very different to those that exist today.
It is therefore wrong to suggest that access to fair trials was removed during Charles’s reign as there was no similar precedent prior to the advent of the Inquisition. Torture had been used since the thirteenth century as means of extracting a confession and criminal trials changed little over the centuries. One thing that did change during Charles’s reign was that the accused were no longer permitted to choose their own lawyer and this in turn dramatically reduced their chances of being acquitted. Once again however, it must be recognised that whilst the freedom of a choice of a lawyer was lost the number of people affected was confined to those arrested by the inquisition. The average law-abiding Spanish citizen probably had little knowledge about the legal process and therefore would not have felt disadvantaged by this development. It can be concluded therefore that the loss of personal freedom affected only those arrested during Charles reign which compared to the whole Spanish population was a relatively small number.
It is clear that by the mid-sixteenth century, Spain heresy had effectively been eliminated. The small protestant groups had been dismantled and their influence was minimised by the introduction of the Index as well as the continued observance of the inquisition that upheld strict orthodoxy. Furthermore the lavish yet terrifying auto de fés were designed to inspire awe for the mysterious authority of the inquisition, and to impress the population with a wholesome abhorrence of heresy(14). Such deterrents ensured that the majority of the Spanish people did not stray into the arms of protestant groups.
It is evident that freedoms such as fair access to the law and fair employment were lost yet it must be remembered that we are not comparing freedoms that we have in the twenty first century to those in the sixteenth as there were inevitably far fewer. The right to fair employment was challenged by the obsession of purity of the blood and was later confirmed by the Statute of Limpeiza. It must however, be considered that only certain institutions employed the statute and that it was only the upper classes that were affected. The majority of the Spanish population were peasants or lower classes and they actually benefited from the new rules as they gained more respect.
Many personal and social freedoms disappeared in the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella. The end of covivencia meant that freedom of worship was removed as was the right to a fair legal trial found in secular courts. The Inquisition tribunals acted very differently to those of secular law and in spite if the fact that they did not have the principle of ‘innocent till proven guilty’ as in present day legal procedures they lost few, if any rights and freedoms that existed before Charles’s reign concerning access to the law.
The Index was introduced in Charles’s reign and its impact has been seen as limited and in reality its full effect would not have been seen till during the reign on Philip II.
Therefore one comes to the conclusion that the elimination of heresy during the reign of Charles V was not at the expense of personal and social freedoms. It must be remembered that those affected by the Inquisition were in the minority and the majority of Spain were loyal Catholics who lost few, if any freedoms. In addition it was in the years of Ferdinand and Isabella that the most drastic action was taken in terms of orthodoxy and the establishment of a mono-religious state. The effect and power of the Inquisition was exaggerated by both the Holy Office and the monarch as means of propaganda to discourage the Spanish people from committing heresy. This further emphasises the care one must take when analysing the impact of the Inquisition and the extent to which the average Spaniard was affected.
3,514 Words
Footnotes
- Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition, An Historical Revision, pb 1997 Weidenfield & Nicolson. Pg. 1
- Roth, Cecil. The Spanish Inquisition, pb 1937 Billing and Sons Ltd., Guilford and Esher pg163
- Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition, An Historical Revision, pb 1997 Weidenfield & Nicolson pg 87
- Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469-1716 pb 1985, Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex. Pg 215
- Requoi, Adeline. Juifs et Musulmanes dans une ville de la Castille septentrionale. Pb Paris, 1986
- Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469-1716 pb 1985, Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex. Pg 215
- Houston, R.A. Literacy in Early Modern Europe. Culture and Education 1500-1800. pb London 1988 pg. 165
- Kamen 1993a, p.396
- Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469-1716 pb 1985, Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex.
- Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469-1716 pb 1985, Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex.
- Charles Lea, Henry. A History of the Inquisition of Spain, Volume I. pb 1922 The Macmillan Company, London. Pg 527.
- Archivo de Simancas, Libro 939, fol 64.
- Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469-1716 pb 1985, Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex.
- Charles Lea, Henry. A History of the Inquisition of Spain, Volume I. pb 1922 The Macmillan Company, London. Pg
Bibliography
Secondary Sources- Books
- Charles Lea, Henry. A History of the Inquisition of Spain, Volume I. pb 1922 The Macmillan Company, London
- Defrourneaux, Marcelin. La Vie Quotodienne en Espagne au Siècle d’or. Pb.1966. Hachette, Paris.
- Kamen, Henry. Spain 1469-1714, A Society of Conflict. Pb.1991. Pearson Education Limited, Essex
- Ibid. The Spanish Inquisition, An Historical Revision, pb 1997 Weidenfield & Nicolson
- Ed. Lotherington, John. Years of Renewal European History 1470-1600. Pb 2004, Gray Publishing, Kent.
- Lynch, John. Spain under the Hasburgs. Vol I: Empire and Absolutism 1516-1598. Pb. 1981, Basil Blackwell Publisher Limited, Oxford.
- Maland, David. Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Pb.1983. Machmillan Education Limited, Hampshire.
- Roth, Cecil. The Spanish Inquisition, pb 1937 Billing and Sons Ltd., Guilford and Esher