With the early migration of the Italians and the Sicilians the growth of the Mafia and other organised crime groups increased the level of crime within the USA. During the 1950’s and around this time, crimes of both America and Japan had similar rates, it has only been since this time that America’s crime rates have risen to the levels that they are today, especially in violent crimes. Individual states have their own crime levels which affect the country as a whole. For example violent crimes in New York can decrease sufficiently however, crimes of the same nature can increase in California and as California is a much larger state than New York, the growth in California outweighs the fall in New York therefore resulting in an increase overall. Also, the notion of the ‘American Dream’ and the belief that material success is a goal in achieving the Dream was a theory that Merton (1938) developed. His theory of Anomie was that people wanted to succeed and achieve in life, but the severe wanting of this goal caused social strain and stresses. He explains that there is a ‘cultural imbalance that leads to people being prepared to use any means, regardless of their legality, to achieve that goal’ (Merton, 1938; p674). This theory can help understand and partially explain the reasons as to why America has high crime rates. Japanese crime rates are low by an international standard however, as shown in the International Comparisons in Criminal Justice statistics 2001 (Barclay, Tavares 2003) Japan has experienced a 16% increase in crime from 2000 to 2001. Japan has had its own share of organised crime groups, the main one of which being the Yakuza group. Yakuza have been fully operational until recently in 1992, however before this they were very well known all over the country and globally for their political networking and other influences they had on large corporate companies and industries. To the large companies and businesses they were a form of protection if anything were to go wrong, and received great sums of money for their service. They were also involved in bribery to get what is was they wanted, and due to this were able to use many political figures for their own gain; also political figures used the Yakuza for their influencing powers to get the outcome they wanted. Historically, the Yakuza was seen as a positive part of Japanese culture, they were easily accessible for townspeople, and their services were often used as an aid very much like the police. They were a group who were set to help the weak against the Samurai. In more recent times, as mentioned the Yakuza are often dealing with corrupt businesses and politicians and handling in drug and arms trafficking. It has also been reported that they were involved in prostitution and forms of pornography.
America’s influence and involvement in war has also made it easier for them to be labelled as a somewhat violent country, both Gulf Wars and Vietnam are examples of this. It can also be said that the experiences of war and all the violence that is involved, has desensitised many citizens of the states. After the Second World War Japan was very much a defeated country, their economy was left in ruins. The country at that point was not expected to recover however, Japan experienced a remarkable economic growth and they were able to rebuild. As the rebuild continued, Japan became more urbanised and heavily populated. As birth rates increased, it was thought that based on theories, crime would also increase, but this was not to be the case. The ‘Sex Role Theory’ argues that men commit more crimes than women as it is in their biology to do so (Walklate, 2003; p56). This point is also argued by Lombroso and Ferrero (1895) ‘Women would commit less crime than men because they have not evolved to the same degree as men and are therefore more primitive…’ This is a contradictory belief by Lombroso and Ferrero as they had previously argued that those whom had a criminal mind, be they male or female were of a primitive nature and that they had not fully evolved and developed to the same degree as the rest of the “normal” society.
Particularly after the war, Japanese officials began stronger policing techniques in hope and aim to cut down on the “little” crime that they had and to also to protect their communities. As a country they had high numbers of police on the streets. The groups of police would work within small communities to be able to familiarise themselves with the local neighbourhoods and families, they would also in pairs visit each house in the community and politely ask questions about anything suspicious or that they thought the police should know about. If there were any information, then the police would decide what and how much further action to take in the matter. This technique causes the families within the neighbourhood to act as a “neighbourhood watch” team and take an interest in what one another are doing. This method has many advantages along with disadvantages, the main one of which is the invasion of privacy that they would all incur. Also for active criminals who are aware of this practice, they would be increasingly careful as to how much attraction they bought to themselves and their home, or would just find other ways in which to commit the crime. Small police cabins called koban’s are placed closely together to ensure the safety of the community, and also to be sure that when a police officer is needed that it is possible to obtain assistance quickly and efficiently, ‘Japanese police through the koban are uniquely in touch with the community they serve’ (Aldous, Leishman, 2001, p20) With the kobans and the amount of police “on the beat” the clear up rates for Japan are not surprisingly very high and efficient. This method of policing, and the way that homes within the community are visited has lessened by a significant amount in recent years. Since the development of towns and cities, the population has grown and so there is not enough time for all the homes to be visited and for a considerable amount of time to be spent with the families. Reports show that this method of policing originally came from Europe, the koban system was an adaptation which came ‘indirectly from Britain, as it is effectively a consolidation of the beat system which originated with the London Metropolitan Police.’(Aldous, Leishman, 2001 p21). In Aldous’ and Leishman’s article, they express the fact that the Japanese liked this policing technique as ‘it was highly centralised, incorporated wide-ranging administrative functions and was overtly political’ (2001, p21).
When the police have been successful in apprehending a suspect, reports and video statements show that means by which the police were able to obtain a confession are not of legal means, and it is felt by the suspect that they are often forced into confessing to the crime whether they had truly done it or not. If the suspect has been convicted and given a custodial sentence, the type of prison that they are sent to is more influenced by rehabilitation rather than deterrence and punishment. Video reports show that prisoners are to undertake recreational tasks such as painting and knitting, and it is also expected for them to attend and in prison schooling system and be educated. In Britain and the United States however, this is a very different story as prisoners are locked in their cell for hours and receive limited leisure time.
It is often argued that one of the main reasons for Japan’s low crime rate, is due to the shame and the guilt that the criminal will put on to the family and what the consequences are that will follow. Braithwaite (1989) argues that the Japanese would rather not commit a crime than to put shame onto themselves and especially the family; ‘It is more accurate to say that Japanese people conform because they know that conformity will be highly rewarded while the consequences of non conformity are enormously costly’ (Nelkin; 1997; p 200) the definition of shaming that Braithwaite uses is ‘all social processes of experiencing disapproval which have the intention or effect of invoking remorse in the person being shamed and/or condemnation by others who become aware of he shaming’ (Nelkin; 1997; p199). In the Unites States however, this notion is not strongly expressed and the use of other forms of punishment are used to discipline. Shame within the family, home and culture is not seen or expressed in the same way in different countries; this may be due to the fact that family values and loyalties are more of a Japanese culture trait dating back through their history rather than a “universal” way of living.
Geographically, Japan being an island has the advantage that it is easily accessible for imports and exports of illegal trade. Although, this is limited by the government due to the strict laws and careful notation of what goods are travelling in and out of the country. However, where there is a demand for a good there is also a supply and vice versa. This opens the doors for the black market and for criminals, where there is a law preventing them from doing what they want, they will find a way in which to break it; ultimately making them a criminal.
There are many reasons as to why domestic violence is not recorded and makes up a large proportion of the Dark Figure that is problem for all countries over the world. Domestic violence is often not reported to the police as it is an affair within the home. Both men and women are victims, women can find it difficult to talk about the abuse that they suffer, and are scared what would happen if her abuser were to find out that she had told. For men it is often a different reason, if a man is being abused by a woman, then he may find that he feels that his masculinity and pride have been altered for the worst. Crimes of a sexual nature may not be reported for similar reasons, a woman in court will have to face strong scrutiny for what she has claimed, so many women feel that it is not worth the trauma of having to prove that they ere raped. Again, men may not report this for the fear tat they would then be labelled, and further abused within their local community; and like women would have to face scrutiny in court. Crimes of both a domestic and sexual nature are heard of more in the UK and in the USA other than in Japan. This would suggest that rather these crimes being on existent in Japan, that these crimes are a much larger proportion of the dark figure and are in fact a problem that needs to be dealt with. Due to the Japanese historical traditions of family and culture loyalties, to commit a crime of the description would same and disgrace the family, in some situations to the extent of disowner-ship.
Many of arguments that have been put forward in this essay can and are used for other countries and not only Japan. Globally, dark figures are produced by crimes that are not seen or hidden; a prime example of this would be that crime of organised groups. As it is difficult to value the true extent of hidden crime, and with the influences that the yakuza had over the government; it therefore may not be the case that Japan’s crime rates are as low as what is believed. Still, this is a problem that is faced all over the world and if the dark figure was to be taken into account, the impact it would have on Japan’s crime figures it would also have on other countries. What would not be known is that if the dark figure is applied, would Japan’s crime rates still be at an international low? What, must also be taken into consideration are the cultural differences that each country possesses. For example, the extent of shaming in Japan is not a factor affecting the crime rates in the UK and the USA, and the wanting to live the American Dream is not a factor in the UK and Japan. Each country has its own direct and indirect factors that need to be taken into account when measuring and comparing statistics of this nature.
Bibliography
Aldous, C; Leishman, F; 2001; ‘Worlds Apart? Policing in Japan and Britain’, in Criminal Justice Matters, No 44, Summer 2001, p 20-21
Barclay, G; Tavares, C; 2003; ‘International Comparisons of Criminal Justice Statistics’; Home Office Research Bulletin 12/03; Home Office;
www.homeoffice.gov.uk
Burke, R, H; 2003; ‘An Introduction to Criminological Theory’; Devon; Willan Publishing
Lombroso, C; Ferraro, W; 1895; ‘The Female Offender’ p144 in Heidensohn, F; 1996; ‘Women & Crime’; 2nd Edition; London; Macmillan Press Ltd
Merton, R, K; 1938; ‘Social Structure and Anomie’ American Sociological Review; October; p672-82
Nelkin, D; 1997; ‘Comparing Legal Cultures’; Aldershot; Dartmouth Publishing Company
Walklate, S; 2003; ‘Gender, Crime and Criminal Justice’; Devon; Willan Publishing
