Firstly, since it is a tradition, it is needed to preserve group identity. Where a group had always been recognised by a certain practise or custom, it is important that the practise continues in order to define who they are.
Besides, FGM is important for a female to be eligible to get marry in a FGM society. Women who have not been excised have little chance to get married and marriage is essential to the social and economic security of a woman in those places.
Lastly, FGM societies feel that unless a girl had gone through this procedure, she will not be a true woman.
If people are to accept FGM just because it is a cultural practise, it is very ridiculous. Thus, FGM should be considered as a criminal offence. To eliminate FGM, the most important thing is to eliminate all these cultural beliefs. If it is for medical reasons a female have to be excise, an approved practitioner must do it. However, as a stepping stone to end FGM, government should first allows doctors to do the procedure to minimise the risk rather then females undergoing FGM under unsafe conditions.
MORAL VALUES BEHIND FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION.
FGM may be considered as morally wrong in one society but it may be perfectly acceptable in societies where it is practise. In places where FGM is not practise, it is considered as violating human rights, interfering woman’s human nature and the biological function of the vagina. In short, it is immoral to carry out the procedure. However, in the 28 countries where FGM is performed, it is immoral NOT to perform FGM and it is perfectly acceptable in their moral code.
Hence, the line of whether FGM is moral or immoral is one that is very difficult to draw. But, majority of the people will consider it as immoral.
WOMEN’S RIGHT TO PRIVACY AND PERSONAL ENJOYMENT
Right to privacy can be seen as a form as security and it allows people to reveal themselves selectively. This mean that everyone have a right to choose which part of themselves to be reveal and this does not include only name, background or address but extended to one’s body.
We, as women had always regarded our genitals as the most private part of our bodies. Our parents had thought us not to let anyone touch our private parts unless consented. However, FGM had clearly gone against this norm. Girls are taken from their homes, and have their most private parts removed of their bodies in the most cruel, inhuman and painful way. In my opinion, FGM had violated woman’s right of privacy by intervening into the most intimate aspect of a woman’s life, her sexuality.
FGM also interferes with a woman’s human nature. This means that FGM had infringed a woman’s right to personal enjoyment. Human reproduce sexually. In that process, women are supposed to experience sexual arousal and orgasm. This is a form of enjoyment for women and it make women want to have sex.
No doubt, FGM had interferes with a woman’s sexual fulfilment, causing her not to have any sexual arousal and orgasm. This had violated a woman’s right to personal enjoyment because FGM takes off a woman’s desire for sex and causes pain during intercourse. With that, intercourse that is supposed to be enjoyable became a form of pain for women.
HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998
Human Rights Act 1998 is one of the act of parliament in the United Kingdom. This act is “to give further effect to rights and freedom guaranteed under the European Convention on Human Rights.” FGM had clearly breached articles in the Human Rights Act 1998.
FGM infringed Article 2 of the Human Rights Act 1998, which is right to life. FGM inflict severe pain and suffering to those females who undergo it and FGM can be life endangering. When death can be the result of this ritual, FGM is risking a female’s life and death, therefore infringing her right to life.
Next, FGM had also breached Article 3 of the Human Rights Act 1998, which is prohibition to torture. This Article prohibits one from any inhuman or degrading treatment. It is very clear that FGM is an inhuman practise since it removes a female’s private part without her consent in the most painful fashion. It is also a degrading treatment because FGM is practised to control a woman’s sexuality and autonomy. It initiates a woman into strictly defined gender roles. In this era, we talk about equality but FGM put women into an inferior position. Such action did not respect a woman’s dignity and therefore, considered as a degrading treatment.
Article 5 of the Human Rights Act 1998, right to liberty and security had also been breached. Girls are depriving of their liberty when they are forced to undergo the ritual, restrain during and after the ritual. Girls are forced by their parents to undergo FGM. During FGM, a girl would be hold down by a woman and after FGM, a girl is suppose to tied her leg up for about 4 months until the wound heal. This clearly interferes with a female’s liberty since she do not has the freedom to move about as how she wishes.
FGM violate Article 9 of the Human Rights Act 1998, freedom of thought, conscience and religion as well. This article provides that everyone has the freedom to choose his or her practise. FGM violate this article by imposing practises on women without giving them an option to choose. There are serious sanctions against women who do not excise. A woman will be considered as ineligible to get marry if do not undergo this procedure and getting marry is seen as the only significant and acceptable role for women in FGM societies. Thus, women consented to FGM not because they accept the tradition but because they fear about the sanctions that follow and there is no freedom of thought and conscience involve in such situation.
The next article that FGM had breached is Article 14, prohibition of discrimination. With this article, discrimination should not exist. Sadly, in FGM societies, this is not the case because a ‘whole’ woman would be treated differently and not gets the same treatment from the society or even from their own family. This is discrimination.
Lastly, Article 17, prohibition of abuse of rights was infringed. Females have their own distinct rights. FGM had abuse all these rights by interfering a female physically and her biological function of a vagina.
I believe that FGM can survive today in some societies because people does not know or know little about their rights. Hence, I strongly suggest that those countries that are practising FGM should adopt a code such as the Human Rights Act 1998.
Often, women in FGM societies do not know that their human rights had been violated. They assume that got beaten up by their husbands is a part of marriage and have their private parts circumcised is a part of life. They do not understand that these actions had violated both national law and international human rights treaties. Females accept FGM because they do not know that they can say ‘NO’ to it. One way to solve this problem is to adopt code such as the Human Rights Act so that females will understand their rights and hopefully, stand up for their rights one day by saying ‘NO’ to FGM.
Although countries practising FGM did not have code such as Human Rights Act, but there are other ways to protect females. International Law is there to prevent, investigate and punish violence against women. Other than these, out of 28 countries that practise FGM, 26 had ratified the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), and UNICEF, asked the world for support to end FGM by calling FGM, “unsafe and unjustifiable traditional practise.” Amnesty International also tries to stop FGM. All these laws are present because victims of FGM do not have the power to stop it themselves, so it is the obligation of those who do not practise FGM to assist them in asserting their human rights, and bringing this practise to an end forever.
UNITED KINGDOM AND OTHER COUNTRIES PRACTISING FGM.
United Kingdom will be compare with other countries that are practising FGM, and I had chosen Egypt and Ethiopia to be compared. I choose Egypt because it is believe that FGM was originated from Egypt. Ethiopia was then chosen because its prevalence of FGM is considered as one of the highest among countries that practises FGM.
Who practices FGM in These Countries?
In UK, FGM is seen in some ethic minority as a result of immigration and refugee movements and they are mainly from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Yemen. The Department of Health in UK had estimated that the prevalence of FGM is around 74,000 women and further 7,000 are at risk each year.
Throughout Egypt, both Muslims and Christians practise FGM. In Cairo, Egypt, women that practised FGM is seen as young, Muslim, single, educated, employed and of lower incomes. Research by WHO had shown that prevalence was 97% in 1995. UNICEF and Egyptian government had also reported the prevalence of FGM.
FGM is prevalent throughout the whole Ethiopia since 46 out of 66 ethics groups carried out FGM. The prevalence of FGM is 75%. Christians, Muslims and Ethiopian Jews (Falashas) practices FGM in Ethiopia.
Which Type of FGM?
Girls in UK do not undergo the procedure in UK itself. During summer school holidays, young girls who practise FGM would travel abroad to undergo mutilation.
In Egypt, school holiday is also the traditional time for girls to be mutilated. Here, the most common type of FGM is circumcision; and infibulation is more common in areas of South Egypt closer to Sudan.
According to National Committee on Traditional Practices of Ethiopia (NCTPE), the predominant type of FGM is clitoridectomy, followed by excision and infibulations. The forth type of FGM is usually performed in the Amhara region.
Reasons Practising FGM.
All the FGM societies practices FGM for common reasons. Hence, these three countries should not be an exception. The main reasons to perform FGM are cleanliness, to be eligible for marriage, virginity and fidelity after marriage.
Legislation Against FGM.
Female Genital Mutilation (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) Act 2003 and Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005 are the two acts in UK, which make FGM illegal. The maximum penalty for breaking such law is 14 years imprisonment. In fact, since 1985, FGM is illegal in UK with Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985. A government spokesperson had admitted to the Lords that no one had been prosecuted under the Act because of the difficulty to get evidence. It is very clear that since the death of a 12- year- old girl in June 2007, due to female circumcision, Egypt had banned all types of FGM. Now, new legislation is needed to enforce it. On facts, FGM had been made illegal in Egypt in 1996 when the Ministry of Health and Population issued decree N° 261 but it did not legally prevent the performance of FGM in a home by a non- governmental medical practitioner.
There is no specific law in Ethiopia, which states that FGM is illegal. However, the 1995 Constitution and the 1960 Penal Code prohibits harmful traditional practices. The provisions are interpreted as prohibiting FGM. The Family Law, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the CEDAW were ratified to eliminate FGM.
Efforts to Abolish FGM.
Even with laws, the problem of FGM cannot be solved. There must be other efforts to put an end to this practise.
In London, UK, Scotland Yard is offering $40,000 as reward for any information leading to the arrest and prosecution of anyone carrying out FGM in Britain or sending girls abroad for mutilation. Besides, the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) launched an ongoing awareness campaign to inform parents and practitioners that it is illegal to involve in any kind of FGM inside or outside of UK.
In Egypt, religious leader and Egyptian official media had campaign to stress that FGM is irrelevant with any religious belief and enlighten people on its negative implications. The Ministry of Health and Population also had campaign to inform traditional leaders of the hazards of FGM.
The government in Ethiopia is working to discourage FGM through programmes in public schools. The Ministry of Education had included materials, which explain the negative effects of FGM in primary school syllabus. There are also ongoing efforts to prevent FGM with the establishment of committees at all administrative levels.
CONCLUSION.
FGM can be equate to an evil which has no room for its existence. I personally am not ready to standby while our girls are mutilated. Cultural acceptance does not include accepting the unacceptable. And I wonder how many people in the world are willing to accept it?
As conclusion, I would like to share a song, which was sung by Kenyan girls after enduring the hardship of FGM:
“The knife cut down the guardian of the village today.
Now he is dead and gone.
Before the village was dirty,
but now without the guardian it is clean.
So look at us, we are only women
and the men have come to beat the tam- tam.
They have phalli like the elephants.
They have come when we are bleeding.
Now back to the village where a thick Phallus is waiting.
Now we can make love because our sex is clean.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Internet Resources
Anonymous, “Ethiopia: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC),” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10098.htm>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Legal Prohibitions Worldwide,” 3rd December 2007, <http://www.reproductiverights.org/tools/print_page.jsp>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation- caring for patient and child protection,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/FGM>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.rcog.uk/printindex.asp?PageID=548&Print=Yes>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://members.tripod.com/~Wolvesdreams/FGM.html>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
Anonymous, “Forward: Female Genital Mutilation,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.forwarduk.org.uk/key-issues/fgm>.
Anonymous, “Health 3,000 UK Girls Risk Female Circumcision Every Year,” 22nd December 2007, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/212240.stm>.
Anonymous, “Human Rights Act 1998(c. 42),” 20th December 2007, <http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1998/ukpga_19980042_en1>.
Anonymous, “Mutilated Girls: U.K.’s Ignored Secret,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/08/03/london/printable3130654.shtml>.
Anonymous, “Netherlands: Dutch Imams Speak Out Against Female Circumcision,” 18th December 2007, <http://fgmnetwork.org/news/show_news.php?subaction=showfull&id=11978379188&archieve=&template=>.
Anonymous, “Prevention of Female Genital Mutilation in the UK,” 22nd December 207, <http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/PreventionFGM>.
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
Anonymous, “Women’s Human Rights,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.amnestyusa.org/print.php>.
Badawi, Mohamed, “Epidemiology of Female Sexual Castration in Cairo, Egypt,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.noicirc.org/symposia/first/badawi.html>.
Black, Ian, “Egypt Bans Female Circumcision After Death of 12- year- old Girl,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/egypt/story/0,,2115290,00.html>.
Brannan, Micheline, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 18th December 2007, <http://www.scotland.gov.uk/consultations/justice/fgmc-00.asp>.
Brunner, Borgna, “The Abolition of Female Genital Mutilation”, 16th December 2007, <http://print.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001524.html>.
Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003(c. 31), “Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003,” <http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2003/ukpga_20030031_en_1>.
Getachew, Indrias, “Battling an ancient tradition: Female genital mutilation in Euthiopia”, 16th December 2007, <http://www.unicef.org/protection/ethiopia_34881.html?q=printme>.
Ingram, Simon, “Battling the Source of Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.unicef.org/egypt/reallives_887.html>.
Jacqueline Castledine and Mount Holyoke College, “Female Genital Mutilation: An Issue of Cultural Relativism or Human Rights?” 18th December 2007, <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jc.htm>.
Lita, Ana, “Female Genital Mutilation (FGM),” 23rd December 2007, <http://atheism.about.com/od/bioethics/a/FGM.htm>.
Mafadi, David, “Uganda: Kapchorwa District Seeks to End Female Cicumcision,” 18th December 2007, <http://fgmnetwork.org/news/show_news.php?subaction=showfull&id=1197763136&archieve=&template=>.
Nicol- Wilson, Melron, “Ending Female Genital Mutilation without Human Rights: Two Approaches- Sierra Leone,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.cceia.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_03/articles/630.html/:pf_printable?>.
Nzirorera, Sylvana, “Egypt: Islamic Scholar Oppose Ban on Female Circumcision,” 18th December 2007, <http://fgmnetwork.org/news/show_news.php?subaction=showfull&id=119783&archieve=&template=>.
Scott, Jennifer, “Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation,” 18th December 2007, <http://web.mala.bc.ca/clemotteo/Pandora/Ethics%20230/eliminating_female_mutil.htm>.
Siddiqui, Sam, “Female Genital Mutilation and Islam,” 16th December 2007, <http://blogcritics.org/archieves/2007/12/11/214511.php>
Brunner, Borgna, “The Abolition of Female Genital Mutilation”, 16th December 2007, <http://print.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001524.html>
As introduction, it is important to know what both female and male have to say about FGM:
- Hodan, 20, who has never go through FGM before said, “All girls of my age are married. Only I remain single, because people say that I am open. If I ever have a daughter, I will make sure she is cut and sealed.”
- Kauser, 18, had a different view, “Since the time I was cut, I kept bleeding all the time. I am afraid of getting married because I will have to be cut again.”
- A single man, Fateeh Mohammad Yassin remained committed to the tradition, “I do not want a wife who has not been cut at all.
Getachew, Indrias, “Battling an ancient tradition: Female genital mutilation in Euthiopia”, 16th December 2007, <http://www.unicef.org/protection/ethiopia_34881.html?q=printme>
The different in name is not significant. Authors use the term FGM when they are fighting against the practice, while FC is used when the authors supports the practice.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Legal Prohibitions Worldwide,” 3rd December 2007, <http://www.reproductiverights.org/tools/print_page.jsp>.
The three forms of FGM are clitoridectomy, excision and infibulation.
Brunner, Borgna, “The Abolition of Female Genital Mutilation”, 16th December 2007, <http://print.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001524.html>.
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
The unclassified form of FGM includes prickling, piercing or incising and stretching of the clitoris and/or labia; cauterization by burning the clitoris and surrounding tissue; scraping of tissue surrounding the vagina orifice and introduction of corrosive substance into the vagina to cause bleeding for the purpose of tightening it
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
Western coast of the red sea is now modern Egypt
Siddiqui, Sam, “Female Genital Mutilation and Islam,” 16th December 2007, <http://blogcritics.org/archieves/2007/12/11/214511.php>
The feminine soul of the man was located in the prepuce of the penis.
Siddiqui, Sam, “Female Genital Mutilation and Islam,” 16th December 2007, <http://blogcritics.org/archieves/2007/12/11/214511.php>
Siddiqui, Sam, “Female Genital Mutilation and Islam,” 16th December 2007, <http://blogcritics.org/archieves/2007/12/11/214511.php>
The immediate and long- term health consequences of FGM vary accordingly to the type and severity of the form of FGM performed.
Severe pain is due to the absent of anesthesia, antibiotics or any medical treatment
HIV is due to the use of broken glass, tin can lids, blunt knives, scissors, or razors which are not sterilized and used in multiple operations
Other example of immediate or short- term effects of FGM are urine retention, serious infection, clitoral cysts, abscesses, ulceration and injury to adjacent tissue.
Dyspareunia is painful sexual intercourse.
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
This is because women must be continually cut open for childbirth and resewn after birth. FGM causes the process of giving birth extremely painful and excruciatingly dangerous as it prolongs labor and obstructs the birth canal.
Anonymous, “Women’s Human Rights,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.amnestyusa.org/print.php>
Negative psychological consequences include reduced of sexual sensitivity, possible loss of trust in caregivers, feelings of incompleteness, anxiety, terror, depression, and also increased in docility.
Reasons performing FGM are to prevent vaginal cancer, prevent masturbation or lesbianism, prevent nervousness from developing in female, prevent face from turning yellow and make a female’s face more beautiful.
This helps to ensure virginity in young girls and fidelity in married women. This is also important to reduce the chance of sex outside marriage.
The clitoris and labia of a female is considered as the “male” parts. In order for a girl to enhance her femininity, these parts have to be fully removed.
Without FGM, a female will not be allowed to handle food or water. Some society also belief that if the clitoris touches a man’s penis or a baby’s head, the man or the baby will die.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://members.tripod.com/~Wolvesdreams/FGM.html>.
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
Brunner, Borgna, “The Abolition of Female Genital Mutilation”, 16th December 2007, <http://print.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001524.html>.
Jacqueline Castledine and Mount Holyoke College, “Female Genital Mutilation: An Issue of Cultural Relativism or Human Rights?” 18th December 2007, <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jc.htm>.
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
Jacqueline Castledine and Mount Holyoke College, “Female Genital Mutilation: An Issue of Cultural Relativism or Human Rights?” 18th December 2007, <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jc.htm>.
Countries practicing FGM are Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo and Uganda.
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
Brannan, Micheline, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 18th December 2007, <http://www.scotland.gov.uk/consultations/justice/fgmc-00.asp>.
The 2003 Act had given FGM extra- territorial effect and increased the maximum penalty for FGM.
Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003(c. 31), “Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003,” <http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2003/ukpga_20030031_en_1>.
The Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003 makes it a criminal offence for “United Kingdom residents to carry out FGM abroad, or to aid, abet, counsel or procure the carrying out of FGM abroad, even in countries where the practise is legal.”
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.rcog.uk/printindex.asp?PageID=548&Print=Yes>.
There are Muslims scholars around the world that had called for FGM to be banned and punish those who still carry it out.
Siddiqui, Sam, “Female Genital Mutilation and Islam,” 16th December 2007, <http://blogcritics.org/archieves/2007/12/11/214511.php>
Brannan, Micheline, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 18th December 2007, <http://www.scotland.gov.uk/consultations/justice/fgmc-00.asp>.
Arguments on FGM violating Human Rights will be discussed in depth below.
Nzirorera, Sylvana, “Egypt: Islamic Scholar Oppose Ban on Female Circumcision,” 18th December 2007, <http://fgmnetwork.org/news/show_news.php?subaction=showfull&id=119783&archieve=&template=>.
Anonymous, “Netherlands: Dutch Imams Speak Out Against Female Circumcision,” 18th December 2007, <http://fgmnetwork.org/news/show_news.php?subaction=showfull&id=11978379188&archieve=&template=>.
Mafadi, David, “Uganda: Kapchorwa District Seeks to End Female Cicumcision,” 18th December 2007, <http://fgmnetwork.org/news/show_news.php?subaction=showfull&id=1197763136&archieve=&template=>.
Anonymous, “Third World Women’s Health: Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December 2007, <http://haneydaw.myweb.uga.edu/twwh/fgm.html>.
Jacqueline Castledine and Mount Holyoke College, “Female Genital Mutilation: An Issue of Cultural Relativism or Human Rights?” 18th December 2007, <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jc.htm>.
Siddiqui, Sam, “Female Genital Mutilation and Islam,” 16th December 2007, <http://blogcritics.org/archieves/2007/12/11/214511.php>
Jacqueline Castledine and Mount Holyoke College, “Female Genital Mutilation: An Issue of Cultural Relativism or Human Rights?” 18th December 2007, <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jc.htm>.
Getachew, Indrias, “Battling an ancient tradition: Female genital mutilation in Euthiopia”, 16th December 2007, <http://www.unicef.org/protection/ethiopia_34881.html?q=printme>
Brunner, Borgna, “The Abolition of Female Genital Mutilation”, 16th December 2007, <http://print.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001524.html>.
In FGM society, cultural believes are the essence to their people. Words or practices that are passed down by their ancestors will be followed and not be broken merely because of law.
Siddiqui, Sam, “Female Genital Mutilation and Islam,” 16th December 2007, <http://blogcritics.org/archieves/2007/12/11/214511.php>
Women who are not mutilated have little chance to get marry because FGM is often associated with purity.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation,” 3rd December, <http://members.tripod.com/~Wolvesdreams/FGM.html>.
The World Health Organization had estimated that it would take minimum of ten years to reduce the prevalence of FGM, and three generations to eradicate it.
Sometimes these poor kids know what is going to happened to them, sometimes they don’t.
Scott, Jennifer, “Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation,” 18th December 2007, <http://web.mala.bc.ca/clemotteo/Pandora/Ethics%20230/eliminating_female_mutil.htm>.
Anonymous, “Human Rights Act 1998(c. 42),” 20th December 2007, <http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1998/ukpga_19980042_en1>.
It received royal assent on the 9th November 1998 and come into forced two years later on the 2nd October 2000.
Anonymous, “Human Rights Act 1998(c. 42),” 20th December 2007, <http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1998/ukpga_19980042_en1>.
Article 2 of Human Rights Act 1998 held that everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law. No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law.
Article 3 of Human Rights Act 1998 laid down that no one shall be subjected to torture or to inhumsn or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 5 of Human Rights Act 1998 laid down that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No one shall be deprived of his liberty save in cases and in accordance with a procedure described by law.
Article 9 of Human Rights Act 1998 laid down that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others are in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance.
Anonymous, “Women’s Human Rights,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.amnestyusa.org/print.php>.
Article 14 of Human Rights Act 1998 laid down that the enjoyment of the rights and freedom set forth in this convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status.
Article 17 of Human Rights Act 1998 laid down that nothing in this Convention may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein or at their limitation to a greater extent than is provided for in the Convention.
Nicol- Wilson, Melron, “Ending Female Genital Mutilation without Human Rights: Two Approaches- Sierra Leone,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.cceia.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_03/articles/630.html/:pf_printable?>.
Anonymous, “Women’s Human Rights,” 16th December 2007, <http://www.amnestyusa.org/print.php>.
Jacqueline Castledine and Mount Holyoke College, “Female Genital Mutilation: An Issue of Cultural Relativism or Human Rights?” 18th December 2007, <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jc.htm>.
Scott, Jennifer, “Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation,” 18th December 2007, <http://web.mala.bc.ca/clemotteo/Pandora/Ethics%20230/eliminating_female_mutil.htm>.
Anonymous, “Forward: Female Genital Mutilation,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.forwarduk.org.uk/key-issues/fgm>.
Anonymous, “Prevention of Female Genital Mutilation in the UK,” 22nd December 207, <http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/PreventionFGM>.
There is no such teaching in either religion.
Black, Ian, “Egypt Bans Female Circumcision After Death of 12- year- old Girl,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/egypt/story/0,,2115290,00.html>.
Badawi, Mohamed, “Epidemiology of Female Sexual Castration in Cairo, Egypt,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.noicirc.org/symposia/first/badawi.html>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
UNICEF reported that 96%of Egyptian women aged 15 to 49 who ever been married had been circumcised and according to Egyptian government, 50.3% of girls aged 10 to 18 had undergone FGM.
Black, Ian, “Egypt Bans Female Circumcision After Death of 12- year- old Girl,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/egypt/story/0,,2115290,00.html>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
Anonymous, “Ethiopia: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC),” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10098.htm>.
Summer school holiday is chosen becauses their absence in school will be unnoticed.
Anonymous, “Prevention of Female Genital Mutilation in the UK,” 22nd December 207, <http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/PreventionFGM>.
Ingram, Simon, “Battling the Source of Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.unicef.org/egypt/reallives_887.html>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
Anonymous, “Ethiopia: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC),” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10098.htm>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation- caring for patient and child protection,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/FGM>.
Anonymous, “Prevention of Female Genital Mutilation in the UK,” 22nd December 207, <http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/PreventionFGM>.
The spokesperson however had denied that the Act was unenforceable or no effort had been put to enforce it.
Anonymous, “Health 3,000 UK Girls Risk Female Circumcision Every Year,” 22nd December 2007, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/212240.stm>.
Black, Ian, “Egypt Bans Female Circumcision After Death of 12- year- old Girl,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/egypt/story/0,,2115290,00.html>.
The decree states: “It is forbidden to perform excision on females either in hospital or public or private clinics. The procedure can only be performed in cases of disease and when approved by the head of the obstetrics and gynecology department at the hospital, and upon the suggestion of treating physician, performance of this operation will be considered a violation of the laws governing the medical profession. Nor is this operation to be performed by non- physicians.”
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
Article 35, Section 4 of the Constitution states that “Women have the right to protection by the state from harmful customs. Laws, customs and practices that oppress women cause bodily or mental harm to them are prohibited.”
In the 1960 Penal Code, there is a prohibition against torture and the cutting off any body parts.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
Anonymous, “Ethiopia: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC),” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10098.htm>.
Not long after the reward was posted up, a 36- year- old woman who was suspected to be a FGM practitioner was arrested.
Anonymous, “Mutilated Girls: U.K.’s Ignored Secret,” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/08/03/london/printable3130654.shtml>.
Anonymous, “Prevention of Female Genital Mutilation in the UK,” 22nd December 207, <http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/PreventionFGM>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
Anonymous, “Ethiopia: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC),” 22nd December 2007, <http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10098.htm>.
Anonymous, “Female Genital Mutilation: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt,…,” 22nd December 2007, <www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm-prov-d.htm>.
Lita, Ana, “Female Genital Mutilation (FGM),” 23rd December 2007, <http://atheism.about.com/od/bioethics/a/FGM.htm>.
