THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998: AN OVERVIEW
The preamble to the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) describes it as 'an Act to give greater effect to rights and freedoms guaranteed under the European Convention on Human Rights' (the Convention). To understand the HRA you need to now something about the history of the Convention.
THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS
The Convention was drafted after the Second World War. British lawyers and civil servants were heavily involved in its drafting. The United Kingdom (UK) signed up to the Convention in 1953 and was one of the first countries to do so. In all, 45 countries have now signed up to the Convention including most of the east European, former communist countries and several countries that were once part of the Soviet Union. The countries that have signed up to the Convention make up the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe is quite separate from the European Union.
The Convention is divided into 'articles'. Articles 2 to 14 set out the rights that are protected by the Convention. Over the years the Convention has been supplemented by a number of protocols that have been agreed by the Council of Europe. Some of the protocols just deal with procedural issues but some guarantee rights in addition to those included in the Convention. The UK has signed up to two of the protocols that guarantee additional rights (the First and Sixth Protocols) but not to the others (the Fourth, Seventh and Twelfth Protocols).
The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) is the international court set up to interpret and apply the Convention. It is based in Strasbourg, France and is made up of judges nominated by each of the countries that are members of the Council of Europe. Since 1966 people have had the right to bring cases against the British Government in the ECHR. Over the years there have been many cases in which the ECHR has found that the UK has breached the Convention. One reason that there have been so many findings against the British Government is that there was no way that people could get redress for breach of their rights under the Convention in the British courts. This and the fact that taking a case to the ECHR can take several years were major factors in persuading the new Labour Government to pass the HRA shortly after they came to power in 1997. Many people believe that the HRA is one of the major achievements of this government.
Because the Convention is now over 50 years old some of the language that it uses is quite outdated. However, the ECHR has often stressed that the Convention is a 'living instrument'. This means that as society and attitudes change, the ECHR will change and develop the way in which it interprets the Convention. The ECHR will, however, still tend to follow the precedents set by earlier cases - where it does not it will make it clear why it is not doing so. It is therefore important to look at past decisions of the ECHR. Moreover, the HRA requires the courts in this country to take the ECHR's past decisions into account when deciding cases under the HRA. The ECHR now posts its decisions on the internet: http://www.echr.coe.int/Default.htm
Information about the procedures followed by the ECHR and advice on how to apply to that court is set out at the end of this chapter.
The Rights Covered by the Human Rights Act 1998
Not all the rights set out in the Convention and its Protocols are incorporated into British law by the HRA. The HRA only incorporates the rights in Articles 2 to 12 and in Article 14 of the Convention, plus those in the First and Sixth Protocols. The incorporated rights are set out in the First Schedule to the HRA and are referred to as 'Convention rights'.
We will look at these Convention rights in more detail later.
The HRA does not incorporate Article 13 of the Convention. Article 13 provides that people whose rights under the Convention have been breached should have the right to effective redress. The Government did not include Article 13 in the HRA, as it took the view that the HRA itself would meet the requirements of the article by giving people the right to take proceedings in the British courts if they considered that their Convention rights had been breached.
HOW DOES THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT WORK?
The HRA gives 'greater effect' to Convention Rights in two main ways:
* It makes it clear that as far as possible the courts in this country should interpret the law in a way that is compatible with Convention rights.
* It places an obligation on public authorities to act compatibly with Convention rights.
The HRA also gives people the right to take court proceedings if they think that their Convention rights have been breached or are going to be.
Interpreting the Law Compatibly
Parliament makes laws but it is the courts that have to interpret them. The HRA makes it clear that when they are interpreting legislation the courts must do so in a way which does not lead to people's Convention rights being breached. Moreover, the courts are now under a duty to develop the common law - the law which has been developed through decisions of the courts themselves - in a way that is compatible with Convention rights.
What Happens if the Courts cannot Read the Law Compatibly?
If the law is an Act of Parliament, the courts have no choice but to apply the law as it is, even though it breaches Convention rights. However, the higher courts (the High Court, the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords) have the power to make what is called a 'declaration of incompatibility'. This is a statement that the courts consider that a particular law breaches Convention rights. It is meant to encourage Parliament to amend the law, but the courts cannot force the Government or Parliament to amend the law if they do not want to.
A lot of law is not set out in Acts of Parliament but rather in secondary legislation. Secondary legislation is law made under the authority of an Act of Parliament. Rather that set out detailed provisions in an Act of Parliament, Parliament will frequently give the power to make detailed laws to a government minister. The Act of Parliament will give the minister the power to make law but the law itself will be set out in regulations or orders. For example, most social security law is set out in regulations rather than in Acts of Parliament.
Where the courts find that an item of secondary legislation is incompatible with Convention rights, they have the power to strike the law down or not to apply it. This applies to all courts, not just the higher ones. The only circumstance where this is not possible is where the secondary legislation merely repeats a requirement of an Act of Parliament.
Public Authorities
The HRA requires public authorities to act in a way that does not breach Convention rights. The HRA does not define the term public authority, but it is clear that bodies like the police, local councils and government departments and agencies are all public authorities. Private individuals and bodies will not be public authorities for the purposes of the HRA unless they are performing a public function. So, for example, a private security company that has a contract with the Government to transport prisoners to and from court will be a public authority for the purposes of the HRA (and therefore under a duty to respect Convention rights) when it is transporting prisoners but will not be when it is guarding private property under a contract with a private organisation.
The issue of whether a person or body is a public authority for the purposes of the HRA can be very difficult to determine. As there is no definition of a public authority in the HRA this is something that the courts have to decide on.
To find out how to determine whether a body is a public authority for the purposes of the HRA please click here
Taking Proceedings under the Human Rights Act 1998
Someone who believes that a public authority has breached their Convention rights, or is proposing to, can bring court proceedings against the public authority. A person can also raise a breach of their Convention rights as a defence in any court proceedings against them. In either case the person must be a 'victim' of the breach or potential breach, that is, someone who is directly affected by it. (This is a requirement that has its origins in ECHR caselaw - see the section on 'Taking a case to the European Court of Human Rights' below.)
Who may bring proceedings?
Section 7(1(a) of the HRA permits a victim of an act by a public authority which infringes a Convention right to bring proceedings in the appropriate court or tribunal. The concept of a victim has been quite liberally interpreted to include both direct victims, and potential victims where there is a real and personal risk of being directly affected by the violation (see Open Door case below).
Past applicants have included groups of individuals, trade unions, religious bodies and non-governmental bodies. Open Door and Dublin Well Woman v Ireland (1993) 15 EHRR 244 concerned an injunction imposed by the Irish courts preventing the dissemination of information to pregnant women on abortion facilities outside Ireland. Two abortion advice centres, which offered the banned advice, and two women wanting to receive the banned advice were considered victims and were able to bring a challenge using Article 10, freedom of expression.
Organisations thinking of taking a case should be aware that the victim test may rule out some applicants but not others. For example, in the case of Ahmed and Others v UK (2000) 29 EHRR 1, a complaint was made by the union UNISON concerning the restrictions on the political activities of local government officers. UNISON's complaint was considered inadmissible as the regulations in question did not affect the rights of the union as such. However, applications brought by individual local government officers who were affected by the regulations were declared admissible. Accordingly it is always advisable to include an individual applicant as a victim wherever possible.
Generally, a person bringing court proceedings against a public authority under the HRA will be seeking a declaration that the public authority has breached their Convention rights or is proposing to do so. If the breach is continuing they will also want an order that the public authority should stop acting in a way that breaches their Convention rights. They may also seek compensation, although the courts have made it clear that it is not always appropriate for them to award this.
When someone brings proceedings against a public authority for breach of their Convention rights, the public authority may be able to defend itself by saying that it had no choice but to act in the way that it did because it was required to do so by an Act of Parliament. Where this happens the most the person bringing the case may hope to achieve is a declaration of incompatibility.
In most cases the appropriate court proceedings to bring against a public authority under the HRA will be an application for judicial review. Court rules require an application for judicial review to be brought 'promptly' and in any event within three months of the decision or action being challenged. Where someone does not make an application for judicial review there is a one year time limit for starting proceedings.
Proceedings Against Private Individuals or Bodies
As private bodies and individuals are not required by the HRA to respect Convention rights, it is not possible to take proceedings under the HRA against them. This does not mean, however, that the HRA will not have an effect on court proceedings between private bodies or individuals. This is because the courts themselves are public authorities under the HRA and are also required to interpret existing laws and to develop the law in a way that is compatible with Convention rights.
To find out more about the effect of the HRA on disputes between private individuals or companies, please click here
THE CONVENTION RIGHTS
Below we have set out the text of each of the Convention rights incorporated by the HRA, followed by a brief commentary.
Article 2: Right to Life
. Everyone's right to life shall be protected by law. No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law.
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To find out more about the effect of the HRA on disputes between private individuals or companies, please click here
THE CONVENTION RIGHTS
Below we have set out the text of each of the Convention rights incorporated by the HRA, followed by a brief commentary.
Article 2: Right to Life
. Everyone's right to life shall be protected by law. No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law.
2. Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this Article when it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary:
(a) in defence of any person from unlawful violence;
(b) in order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detained;
(c) in action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection.
This article provides that the Government and public authorities must protect the right to life. This may require, for example, that the police have to protect someone whose life is under immediate threat. It could also be used to argue that a patient should be able to get treatment that would save their life.
Generally, there will be a breach of Article 2 if someone is killed by a state official (usually the police, but also the army or prison officers). The only circumstances where there will not be a breach are set out in the second part of the article. However, where a death occurs in each of these three circumstances the police (or other state official responsible for the death) will have to show that they did not use any more force than was absolutely necessary. So, if someone is killed when the police are trying to arrest them, there will be breach of Article 2 if it is shown that the police used more than the minimum amount of force necessary to detain the person.
The ECHR has made it clear that Article 2 also requires that there should be a proper investigation when the police or army kill someone or when someone dies in custody. There have been several cases in the British courts where the courts have had to consider what type of investigation is necessary to meet this requirement.
Article 2 also imposes a positive duty on the state to protect life. In R (on the application of Burke) v General Medical Council (2004) EWHC 1879 (Admin) it was held that guidance issued by the GMC on the withholding and withdrawing of life prolonging treatments breached Arts 2, 3 & 8. Please note this case is currently under appeal.
The death penalty
Article 2 has been supplemented by the Sixth Protocol. The Sixth Protocol abolishes the death penalty, although it allows for exceptions in wartime. The United Kingdom has signed up to this Protocol and the Human Rights Act completely abolished the death penalty.
Relevant Issues
* Deaths caused by failure to provide adequate medical care
* Deportation of terminally ill patients
* Duty on state to investigate fatalities that did not occur at the hands of a state agent, but did occur while deceased in custody of the state, including suicides.
* Policies of non-resuscitation based on age only
*
Article 3: Prohibition of Torture
No one shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
The ECHR has made it clear that inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment has to be very serious to be in breach of Article 3. However, there is no definition in the HRA of the kind of treatment that amounts to a breach of Article 3. Many forms of conduct have been found to be capable of breaching Article 3 including serious assaults, prison conditions, rape, and corporal punishment.
In Ireland v UK (1979 - 1980) 2 EHRR 25 the Court applied the following definitions:
Torture: deliberate inhuman treatment causing very serious and cruel suffering (In later cases, the Court has also found that there is also a purposive element to torture ).
Inhuman treatment or Punishment: Intense physical or mental suffering
Degrading Treatment or Punishment: treatment which arouses in the victim feelings of fear, anguish and inferiority capable of humiliation and debasement and possibly breaking physical or moral resistance.
When analysing whether or not treatment or punishment is contrary to Article 3, the evolving nature of the Convention and the rights contained therein should always be taken into account. The European Court has noted that treatment that may not have been considered torture in the past, may be so nowadays and also vice verse.
This right is an absolute right, however some limits are inherent. For example, most if not all punishment is degrading, but the European Court and domestic Courts have drawn a distinction between ordinary prison conditions and those that fall below an acceptable standard. Successfully justifying treatment contrary to Article 3, however, is rare.
Relevant Issues
* Seclusion of compulsorily detained mental patients (R (Munjaz) v Mersey Care NHS Trust [2003] EWCA Civ 1036 ).
* Expulsion or extradition where torture or ill treatment might be a consequence (Soering V UK (1989) 11 EHRR 439; Chahal v UK (1997) 23 EHRR 413)
* Expulsion of sick patient to country with inadequate health facilities (D v UK (1997) 24 EHRR 423).
* Refusal or failure to provide adequate medical care
* Refusal to provide any financial support to asylum seekers and thereby leaving them destitute (R v Secretary of State for the Home Department ex parte Adam, Tesema and Limbuela [2004] EWCA Civ 540)
* Compulsory medical treatment
* Detention of disabled people without adequate adjustments for their disability (Price v UK Application no. 33394/96, § 24, ECHR 2001 )
Article 4: Prohibition of Slavery and Forced Labour
. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude.
2. No one shall be required to perform forced or compulsory labour.
3. For the purpose of this Article the term 'forced or compulsory labour' shall not include:
(a) any work required to be done in the ordinary course of detention imposed according to the provisions of Article 5 of the Convention or during conditional release from such detention;
(b) any service of a military character or, in case of conscientious objectors in countries where they are recognised, service exacted instead of compulsory military service;
(c) any service exacted in case of an emergency or calamity threatening the life or well-being of the community;
(d) any work or service which forms part of normal civic obligations.
This article bans slavery and limits the circumstances in which someone can be forced to work. It is unlikely to have much, if any, effect on British law.
Relevant Issues
* Deportation of individuals to somewhere where they would be exposed to for example, trafficking, forced labour, or forced recruiting by militia.
Article 5: Right to Liberty and Security
. Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No one shall be deprived of his liberty save in the following cases and in accordance with a procedure prescribed by law -
(a) the lawful detention of a person after conviction by a competent court;
(b) the lawful arrest or detention of a person for non-compliance with the lawful order of a court or in order to secure the fulfilment of any obligation prescribed by law;
(c) the lawful arrest or detention of a person effected for the purpose of bringing him before the competent legal authority on reasonable suspicion of having committed an offence or when it is reasonably considered necessary to prevent his committing an offence or fleeing after having done so;
(d) the detention of a minor by lawful order for the purpose of educational supervision or his lawful detention for the purpose of bringing him before the competent legal authority;
(e) the lawful detention of persons for the prevention of the spreading of infectious diseases, of persons of unsound mind, alcoholics or drug addicts or vagrants;
(f) the lawful arrest or detention of a person to prevent his effecting an unauthorised entry into the country or of a person against whom action is being taken with a view to deportation or extradition.
2. Everyone who is arrested shall be informed promptly, in a language which he understands, of the reason for his arrest and of any charge against him.
3. Everyone arrested or detained in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1(c) of this Article shall be brought promptly before a judge or other officer authorised by law to exercise judicial power and shall be entitled to trial within a reasonable time or to release pending trial. Release may be conditioned by guarantees to appear for trial.
4. Everyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings by which the lawfulness of his detention shall be decided speedily by a court and his release ordered if the detention is not lawful.
5. Everyone who has been the victim of arrest or detention in contravention of the provisions of this Article shall have an enforceable right to compensation.
Article 5 limits the circumstances in which someone can be detained. This covers detention for both long periods (for example, if you are in prison or are forced to stay as a patient in a mental hospital) and short periods (for example, if you are arrested). There may even be a detention when the police stop someone on the street and search them.
For any detention to comply with Article 5 it must come within one of six sets of circumstances set out in paragraphs 5(1)(a) to 5(1)(f). The detention must also have a clear legal basis and it must be proportionate, that is, there must be an adequate reason for the detention and the detention should not be for an unreasonably long time. Where someone is detained it is up to the Government to justify the detention rather than for the person detained to show why they should be released.
Cases where the courts have found a breach of Article 5 include:
* Where release of an individual detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 was delayed due to failure to find a place in a supervised hostel, which was a condition of his release (Johnson v UK (1999) 27 EHRR 296).
* Where a compulsorily detained mental patient was effectively required to show why he should be released, rather than the hospital having to show why he should continue to be detained (R v Mental Health Review Tribunal, North and East London Region ex parte H [2001] EWCA Civ 415) The law has now been changed.
* Where an elderly, chronically ill woman was held overnight for 14 hours for refusing to give her name and address to a police officer (Vasileva v Denmark, Application no. 52792/99, ECHR 2003).
Article 5(4) requires that someone who is detained should have the right to have their detention reviewed by a court or independent tribunal. This does not apply to prisoners who have been given a fixed term sentence, but it does apply to life prisoners once their tariff period (the minimum amount of time that they have to spend in prison) has expired. It also applies to compulsorily detained mental patients.
Article 5 is not concerned with the conditions in which someone is detained. There cannot be a breach of Article 5 where someone who is already in detention is placed in a greater degree of detention, for example where a compulsorily detained mental patient is placed in seclusion. Such a situation may, however, raise issues under Articles 3 or 8.
Relevant Issues
* Decision to detain failed asylum seekers and immigrants pending deportation
* Arrest without warrant of individuals on suspicion of committing an immigration offence
* Placing of older people in sheltered accommodation against their will, or in accommodation where freedom of movement is heavily restricted.
* Informal admission to hospital of patients that do not have the capacity to consent or object (see HL v UK, Application No. 45508/99, 5 October 2004)
* Detention of untreatable patients (see Hutchison Reid v UK (App. No. 50272/03, 20 February 2003)
Article 6: Right to a Fair Trial
. In the determination of his civil rights and obligations or of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. Judgment shall be pronounced publicly, but the press and public may be excluded from all or part of the trial in the interests of morals, public order or national security in a democratic society, where the interests of juveniles or the protection of the private life of the parties so require, or to the extent strictly necessary in the opinion of the court in special circumstances where publicity would prejudice the interests of justice.
2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.
3. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the following minimum rights -
(a) to be informed promptly, in a language which he or she understands and in detail, of the nature and cause of the accusation against him;
(b) to have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of his defence;
(c) to defend himself in person or through legal assistance of his own choosing or, if he has not sufficient means to pay for legal assistance, to be given it free when the interests of justice so require;
(d) to examine or have examined witnesses against him and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him;
(e) to have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court.
Article 6 guarantees the right to a fair trial in civil and criminal proceedings. It sets standards for the way that proceedings are run. Although you may feel that you have not had a fair trial if you lose your case, there will only be a breach of Article 6 if these standards have not been met. Article 6 is not concerned with the substantive law.
Criminal proceedings are when someone is prosecuted for an offence. Under Article 6 criminal proceedings have a wider meaning than they usually have in English law. Under Article 6 cases against people for contempt of court or for not paying their council tax count as criminal proceedings.
Any court proceedings which are not criminal cases are civil proceedings. Article 6 covers most but not all civil proceedings. Proceedings between private people or organisations to settle a dispute between them are covered by Article 6. Proceedings between a private person or organisation and the Government or a public authority may be covered by Article 6.
Certain standards apply in both criminal and civil proceedings. These rights include:
* The right to a trial within a reasonable time.
* The right to an independent and impartial judge or tribunal.
* The right to a public hearing (although there are circumstances when the public can be excluded)
* The right to a public judgment (although this may be restricted in certain types of cases, e.g. family cases.)
In civil proceedings Article 6 also protects the right to take court proceedings to settle a dispute, although this right may be restricted in some circumstances. It may also give the right to legal aid where the dispute is very complicated and you are at a disadvantage because you cannot afford a lawyer.
There are further rights in criminal proceedings. These include:
* The right to be presumed innocent until you have been proved to be guilty.
* The right to be informed at a very early stage what the accusation against you is.
* The right not to be forced to answer questions, although the court may be able to draw conclusions from your failure to answer questions.
* The right to adequate time to prepare your defence.
* The right to have legal aid for a lawyer if you cannot afford one and it is in the interests of justice for you to have one.
* The right to be present at your trial.
* The right to put your side of the case at your trial.
* The right to question the main witnesses against you and to call witnesses of your own
* The right to an interpreter if you need one.
Immigration decisions have been expressly excluded from the scope of Article 6 by the European Court of Human Rights. The Court has held that decisions regarding the entry, stay and deportation of aliens (i.e. immigration decisions) do not concern the determination of an applicant's civil rights or obligations or of a criminal charge against him within the meaning of Art .6(1) of the Convention and that, consequently, such proceedings do not fall within the scope of this provision ( Maaouia v France, Application No. 39652/98, 5 October 2000).
Failing to have legal representation/ unavailability of legal aid does not per se render a trial unfair. An entitlement to free legal representation may be implicit in the right of access to court and the right to a fair hearing, but this will depend on:
* What is at stake in the proceedings
* The complexity of the relevant law and procedure
* The capacity of the individual litigant to represent him/herself effectively.
Relevant Issues
* Accusations of bias in a Mental Health Tribunal
* Restrictions on vexatious litigants
* Admission of torture evidence
Article 7: No Punishment without Law
. No one shall be held guilty of any criminal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a criminal offence under national or international law at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the criminal offence was committed.
2. This Article shall not prejudice the trial and punishment of any person for any act or omission which, at the time it was committed, was criminal according to the general principles of law recognised by civilised nations.
This article makes it clear that no one can be found guilty of a criminal offence if what they did was not a criminal offence at the time that they did it. It prevents Parliament passing laws which make criminal offences of things done in the past. Article 7 also provides that you cannot be punished in a way that was not the law when you committed the offence. Parliament cannot backdate a law that increases the length of time you could be sent to prison for or introduces a new punishment for an offence.
It also requires that the law must be clear so that people know whether or not what they are doing is against the law.
Article 8: Right to Respect for Private and Family Life
. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.
2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
Article 8 guarantees respect for four things: a person's private life, family life, home and correspondence.
Private life
Lots of issues have been held to come within the scope of a person's private life and the ECHR has stressed that it is not possible to limit or define what comes within its scope. Things which do clearly come within the scope of a person's private life are:
* Bodily integrity - Article 8 will come into play if someone is forced to have medical treatment or if he or she is forcibly restrained.
* Personal autonomy - this means the right to make decisions about how you lead your life. People have tried to argue that the right to smoke cannabis is an issue of personal autonomy and should therefore be protected by Article 8 but the courts have not been prepared to accept this.
* Sexuality - there have been a number of cases in which the ECHR has made it clear that laws which prohibit gay men having sex breach Article 8.
* Personal identity - the ECHR decided in 2002 that British law's failure to fully recognise the new gender of transgendered people breached Article 8.
* Personal information - the holding, use or disclosure of personal information about someone is covered by Article 8. The article may also give someone the right to access personal information held about them.
* Surveillance
Family life
This means your relationship with your close family. This includes a man and woman who are not married but who live in a stable relationship. The ECHR has not yet recognised same-sex couples as families, but the Court of Appeal did accept this in M v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions [2004] EWCA (Civ) 1343.
The relationship between mother and child appears to attract the protection of Art 8 automatically. Unmarried fathers do not automatically have a family life with their children, but will require an assessment of the circumstances.
Home
Your home is where you currently live. The right to respect for your home does not mean that you have the right to be given a home if you do not have one, or to be given a better one than you already have.
"Home" can extend to include a place of work in some circumstances and also covers an individual's place of abode whether or not they are legally entitled to be there.
Environmental issues (noise or other pollution) may come within the scope of Article 8, because they affect both a person's private life and home.
Correspondence
This includes your phone calls and letters, as well as e-mails. People have successfully used Article 8 to challenge the police or secret services bugging their phones.
A qualified right
Article 8 is qualified right. This means that an interference with the right can be justified. Where the interference is justified, there will be no breach of the article. The circumstances where an interference with the right can be justified are set out in the second part of the article (Article 8(2)).
For an interference to be justified it must:
* Be 'in accordance with the law' - this means that there has to be clear legal basis for the interference and that the law should be readily accessible.
* Pursue a legitimate aim - there are six legitimate aims set out in Article 8(2), e.g. 'the prevention of disorder or crime'. A public authority which intends to interfere with a person's rights under Article 8 must be able to show that what they are doing pursues one of these six legitimate aims. This is rarely a problem, as the legitimate aims are so wide.
Be 'necessary in a democratic society' - This is usually the crucial issue. There must be a good reason for the interference with the right and the interference must be proportionate. This means that it should be no more than is necessary. In De Freitas v Permanent Secretary of Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Lands and Housing [1999] 1 AC 69 the Privy Council set out a three test on the issue of proportionality:
. is the legislative objective sufficiently important to justify limiting a fundamental right?
2. are the measures designed to meet the legislative objective rationally connected to it?
3. are the means used to impair the right or freedom no more than is necessary to accomplish the objective?
Positive obligations
Article 8 and the other qualified articles are largely concerned with preventing the Government, the police or other state bodies interfering with people's rights. They are negative obligations in that they impose a duty not to do something. However, there may be circumstances where the Government is under a positive obligation, a duty to do something in order to protect or promote people's rights. Positive obligations cover:
a) a duty on the state to put in place a legal framework to effectively protect against breaches of Convention rights;
b) a duty on the state to prevent breaches of Convention rights;
c) a duty on the state to provide information and advice on breaches of Convention rights;
d) a duty on the state to respond to Convention right breaches;
e) a duty on the state to provide resources to individuals to prevent breaches of Convention rights.
It will always be much harder to argue that the Government is under a positive obligation than under a negative one.
Relevant Issues
* Administering compulsory medical treatment
* Interference or restrictions on correspondence and visits in mental health hospitals
* Closure of nursing homes
* Right to die with dignity
* Removal or refusal of entry of family members
* Surveillance for protection of patients where patients not capable of consenting
Article 9: Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion
. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance.
2. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
Article 9 guarantees that you can think what you want and can hold any religious belief. You cannot be forced to follow a particular religion and cannot be stopped from changing your religion. You should not be indoctrinated by the state.
It also protects the right to practise your religion or beliefs. For the practise of your beliefs to be protected they must be part of a sufficiently coherent philosophical scheme. So beliefs such as veganism and pacifism are protected.
The right to practise your religion or belief is a qualified right. This means that an interference with the right can be justified. The circumstances in which an interference can be justified are similar to those which justify an interference with rights under Article 8. (See above: the section headed 'A qualified right' under Article 8).
Relevant Issues
* Placement in mixed nursing home, where religious beliefs require a single sex home.
* School uniform restrictions on religious clothing
* Expulsion or extradition where individual unable to practise chosen religion
Article 10: Freedom of Expression
. Everyone has the right of freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. This Article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises.
2. The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary.
Article 10 guarantees the right to hold and express opinions and ideas. It also guarantees the right to pass information to other people and to receive information that other people want to give to you.
Anyone can rely on Article 10 but it is clearly of particular importance to journalists and publishers of newspapers or magazines, who can use Article 10 to argue there should be no restrictions on what they write about or publish. Artists and writers can use it to defend themselves against censorship. Article 10 may be used to argue for fewer restrictions on pornography.
Article 10 is a qualified right. This means that an interference with the right can be justified. The circumstances in which an interference can be justified are similar to those which justify an interference with rights under Article 8 (See above: the section headed 'A qualified right' under Article 8).
Article 11: Freedom of Assembly and Association
. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and to freedom of association with others, including the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
2. No restrictions shall be placed on the exercise of these rights other than such as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. This Article shall not prevent the imposition of lawful restrictions on the exercise of these rights by members of the armed forces, of the police or of the administration of the state.
There are two aspects to Article 11. It protects the right to protest peacefully by holding meetings and demonstrations. This may include a positive obligation to ensure that demonstrators are protected from counter-demonstrators trying to prevent their demonstration. Article 11 also protects the right to form or join a political party or other group or association, and the right to belong to a trade union. However, the right to join a trade union does not extend to police officers, soldiers and some other groups who work for the Government. Article 11 also guarantees the right not to have to join a union.
Article 11 is a qualified right. This means that an interference with the right can be justified. The circumstances in which an interference can be justified are similar to those which justify an interference with rights under Article 8 (See above: the section headed 'A qualified right' under Article 8).
Relevant Issues
* Expulsion or extradition where the individual may be prevented on return from forming or joining a particular political party
Article 12: Right to Marry and Found a Family
Men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family, according to the national laws governing the exercise of this right.
At the moment the right to marry does not extend to same-sex couples. In 2002 the ECHR decided that not allowing transgender people to marry breached their rights under Article 12.
The right to start a family may only apply to people who are married. If it does, people who are not married will have to rely on the right to respect for family life under Article 8 to argue for their right to have children.
Relevant Issues
* Rights of asylum seekers to marry
Article 14: Prohibition of Discrimination
The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status.
Article 14 covers discrimination on all the grounds set out in the article (sex, race, colour etc.) However, the list is open-ended. This is clear from the fact that the article refers to 'other status'. Some other grounds for discrimination are now clearly accepted as coming within the scope of Article 14, for example discrimination on the basis of someone's sexual orientation. What is not clear is how far further grounds for discrimination have to be linked to a personal characteristic or whether it is just necessary for someone to show that they have been treated differently from someone who is in a relevantly similar situation.
In Michalak v London Borough of Wandsworth [2002] EWCA Civ 271 the Court of Appeal set out four questions that a court should ask when considering whether there has been a breach of Art 14:
(i) Do the facts fall within the ambit of one or more of the Convention rights?
(ii) Was there a difference in treatment in respect of that right between the complainant and others put forward for comparison?
(iii) Were those others in an analogous situation?
(iv) Was the difference in treatment objectively justifiable? I.e, did it have a legitimate aim and bear a reasonable relationship of proportionality to that aim?
In two recent judgments of the House of Lords (Ghaidan and R (S & Marper) v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire [2004] UKHL 39), Lady Hale and Lord Steyn have added a fifth question.
In Marper Lord Steyn stated that:
"The ECtHR has interpreted 'other status' as meaning a personal characteristic - Kjeldsen, Busk, Madsen and Pedersen v Denmark (1976) 1 EHRR 711, para 56....On the other hand, the proscribed grounds in Article 14 cannot be unlimited, otherwise the wording of Article 14 referring to 'other status' beyond the well-established proscribed grounds, including things such as sex, race or colour, would be unnecessary. It would then preclude discrimination on any ground. That is plainly not the meaning of Article 14. It is therefore necessary to examine whether the ground for different treatment in this case amounts to a status in the sense of a personal characteristic within the meaning of Article 14."
Although the comments of both Lady Hale and Lord Steyn are probably obiter, and therefore not strictly binding, it is likely that the lower courts will take up the suggestion that a difference in treatment has to be based on a personal characteristic (as an additional question to the 4 above).
Article 14 is not free-standing. For there to be a breach of Article 14 the area in which a person is discriminated against has to come within the scope of one of the other Convention articles. This means that the way in which you are discriminated against has to be connected with one of the other articles. There does not, however, have to be a breach of the other article. So, a gay man who complained about the fact that he was only entitled to succeed to his deceased partner's flat on less favourable terms than a surviving heterosexual partner would have done was able to rely on Article 14 because he was discriminated against on the basis of his sexual orientation and, as the discrimination concerned his home, it was within the scope of Article 8 (Mendoza v Ghaidan[2004] UKHL 30 ).
Even where you can show that you have been discriminated against and that the area in which you have been discriminated against comes within the scope of another article it is still possible for the Government or public authority to argue that the discrimination is justified. They must show that there is a good reason for treating you differently and that doing so is proportionate. Where they can show this there will be no breach of Article 14.
Relevant Issues
* Age discrimination
Article 1 of the First Protocol: Protection of Property
Every natural or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions. No one shall be deprived of his possessions except in the public interest and subject to the conditions provided for by law and by the general principles of international law.
The proceeding provisions shall not, however, in any way impair the right of a State to enforce such laws as it deems necessary to control the use of property in accordance with the general interest or to secure the payment of taxes or other contributions or penalties.
Article 1 of the First Protocol protects people's rights to their property. Property has a very wide meaning. It can include shares, a pension and contributory welfare benefits (social security benefits that are dependant on the claimant having made national insurance contributions).
The article provides that the Government or a public authority cannot deprive a person of their property unless the law allows this and it is necessary in the public interest to do so. The Government must strike a fair balance between the interests of the property owner and the general interest of society as a whole. If your property is taken away you should be entitled to compensation.
Article 1 of the First Protocol also provides that the Government or a public authority cannot put restrictions on what someone does with their property or interfere with a person's property unless there is a law that allows them to do this and there is a good reason for doing so.
The article does not affect the right of the Government or a public authority to enforce taxes or fines.
Relevant Issues
* Whether a profession can be considered a possession
* Where value of a house has diminished due to new development
Article 2 of the First Protocol: Right to Education
No person shall be denied the right to education. In the exercise of any functions which it assumes in relation to education and to teaching, the State shall respect the right of parents to ensure such education and teaching in conformity with their own religious and philosophical convictions.
Article 2 of the First Protocol guarantees a right of access to education. It does not require countries to provide education or to provide education of a particular type, but where there are educational facilities, people should not be denied access to them. This does not prevent schools having selection polices, thought their polices may have to be justified. It is unclear whether the article applies to education at a tertiary level.
The second sentence of the article does not give parents the absolute right to have their children educated in accordance with their religious or philosophical beliefs. It merely requires schools to respect parents' beliefs.
Relevant Issues
* Expulsion from school
* Failure to provide appropriate SEN education
Article 3 of the First Protocol: Right to Free Elections
The High Contracting Parties undertake to hold free elections at reasonable intervals by secret ballot, under conditions which will ensure the free expression of the opinion of the people in the choice of the legislature.
Article 3 of the First Protocol says that there must be elections at reasonable intervals and that elections must be by secret ballot. It gives people the right to vote or to stand in elections, although reasonable restrictions may be put on this right. The ECHR has recently held that the law which prevents all prisoners in the UK from voting in elections breaches this article. The article does not say what method of election should be used.
Relevant Issues
* Refusal to allow illiterate individuals to vote
* Restrictions on voting rights of mentally disabled people
TAKING A CASE TO THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Even though the HRA has now come into force in the UK it is still possible to make an application to the ECHR. There are three key requirements that you must meet:
. You must be a victim of a violation of one or more of the articles of the Convention. Generally, this means you must be directly affected by a breach of the Convention. In some cases it will be enough to show you are likely to be affected by a breach or that you belong to a group of people, some of whom are likely to be affected. For example, gay men were permitted to challenge laws that criminalized gay sex even though it was unlikely that the individual applicants would ever be prosecuted because the laws were rarely enforced.
2. Before you make an application to the ECHR you must pursue any proceedings that you could take in the UK that are capable of providing you with an adequate remedy for the breach of your Convention rights. Now that the HRA is in force this will generally mean that you will have to take proceedings in the UK under the HRA. This may not be necessary, however, where it is clear that the best you could hope to achieve from taking proceedings under the HRA is a declaration of incompatibility.
3. You must make your application to the ECHR within six months of the conclusion of any court proceedings that you have taken in the UK that could have provided you with a remedy or, if there were no proceedings that it was reasonable to expect you to take, within six months of the event which gives rise to your application.
When you make an application to the ECHR you will be asked to complete one of the ECHR's application forms. However, it is not necessary to fill out one of these forms to meet the six month rule. All you need to do is to get a letter to the court within the six months setting out:
. Your details (name, address and nationality).
2. The country against which you are making your application.
3. The facts that have given rise to your application.
4. The article or articles of the Convention that you say have been breached.
You should send your letter to:
The Registrar
European Court of Human Rights
Council of Europe
F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex
France
Fax: 00 33 3 88 41 27 30
When it has received your letter the ECHR will send you one of its application forms to complete. If there is not enough space on the form you can set out your case in a longer document which you attach to the form. It is important that you submit your completed application form within any deadline set by the ECHR or, if no deadline is set, within a few weeks of receiving it. If you do not submit the form speedily you run the risk that the ECHR will decide that you have not met the six month deadline. If you cannot meet any deadline that is set you should contact the ECHR and try to agree an extended deadline.
Once the ECHR has acknowledged receipt of your application form it may be some time (months if not years) before you hear anything further.
At this stage the ECHR may rule your application inadmissible. The ECHR will not give reasons and there is no right of appeal. If your application is ruled inadmissible you will not be able to proceed with it.
If it is not ruled inadmissible at this stage, your application will be allocated to one of the ECHR's four sections. A panel of seven judges from that section will deal with the case. This panel will always include the judge appointed by the United Kingdom. Very significant cases may be dealt with by the ECHR's Grand Chamber. These cases are considered by a panel of seventeen judges. A case could be transferred to the Grand Chamber at any stage in the proceedings.
Your application will also be communicated to the Government at this stage, that is, the Government will be informed that you have made an application and will be invited to respond. You will be given an opportunity to respond to the Government's observations and there may be further exchanges of written representations.
The ECHR will then decide whether your application is admissible. It can rule your application inadmissible if you have failed to meet one of the three requirements set out above or if the ECHR considers that it is 'manifestly ill-founded', in other words, that is not arguable. If the ECHR finds your application inadmissible at this stage it will give reasons, but there is no right of appeal.
If the ECHR finds your application admissible it will then go on to decide whether there has been a breach of the Convention. The ECHR usually refers to this as considering the merits of the application. At this point you have the right to put in a claim for compensation. The ECHR calls this 'just satisfaction'. It should include a claim for legal expenses if you have incurred any. Your claim for just satisfaction should be sent to the ECHR within two months of the ECHR finding your application admissible. Both sides may make further representations before the ECHR decides on the merits of the application.
When the ECHR has made its decision on the merits of your application, you will be notified of the date on which its judgment will be made public. The judgment will be published on the ECHR's website on that day. If the ECHR finds that there has been a breach of your rights it may award you compensation although it does not always do so on the basis that its finding that there has been a breach of your rights is enough.
Once a section of the ECHR has made a final decision on the merits of an application, either party, the Government or the Applicant, can ask to have the application referred to the Grand Chamber. This is the only form of appeal that the ECHR's rules allow for. The Grand Chamber only rarely agrees to a referral. There is no appeal from a final decision made by the Grand Chamber.
Hearings
The ECHR deals with most cases without holding a hearing; it reaches its decisions on the basis of written representations made by the parties. When the ECHR does decide to hold a hearing this will usually take place before the ECHR has decided on the admissibility of the application, although it may also hold a hearing after an application has been found admissible if it has not already held one.
Legal representation
Although you can make an application to the ECHR yourself, it would be wise to get a lawyer experienced in ECHR proceedings to represent you. Most cases are not communicated to the Government (i.e. they are ruled inadmissible at an early stage) and having a lawyer present your arguments for you may help you get over this hurdle.
If the ECHR decides to hold a hearing after it has found your application admissible, the ECHR rules require you to be represented by a lawyer at that hearing unless the ECHR allows otherwise.
Legal Aid
The ECHR has a system of legal aid although the payments which a lawyer receives under the scheme are very low. You can apply for legal aid once your application has been communicated to the Government. It is particularly useful to have legal aid if the ECHR holds a hearing on your case, as legal aid will pay the cost of your and your lawyer's trip to Strasbourg. Eligibility for legal aid will depend on the Legal Services Commission accepting that you would be eligible for legal aid in this country.
If you are not eligible for legal aid, your lawyer may agree to represent you under a conditional fee agreement, that is, on the basis that they will only get paid if you win your case and get your legal costs paid by the Government. However, as very few applications to the ECHR are successful, your lawyer may be reluctant to take this risk. If you lose your case there is no possibility of you being ordered to pay the Government's legal costs.
