Estimation of Cardiac Output.
Exercise Physiology Estimation of Cardiac Output Introduction To investigate the measurements of cardiac output by a non invasive indirect Flick method and to examine the effects of posture on cardiac output. Cardiac output refers to the amount of blood pumped by the heart, usually during a 1 minute period. The maximal value for cardiac output reflects the functional capacity of the circulation to meet the demands of physical activity. (Exercise Physiology, William Mcardle, Frank I. Katch, Victor L. Katch 1996) Output from the heart , as with any pump depends on its rate of pumping (Heart rate) and the quanity of blood ejected with each stroke (stroke volume). (Exercise Physiology, William Mcardle, Frank I. Katch, Victor L. Katch 1996) The cardiac output is worked out by the following equation:- Cardiac Output =Heart Rate X Stroke Volume. The heart is composed mainly of cardiac muscle: a specialised tissue that can contract automatically, powerfully and without fatigue, throughout the life. The heart is situated in the mid-centre of the chest cavity behind the sternum and the ribs. The thickness of the walls in the different heart chambers reflects their function. The atria are thinly muscled because they only pump blood the short distance to the ventricles directly below them. (Biology, Marcus Barbor, Mike Boyle, Mike Cassidy, Kathryn Senior 1997). The
Medicine. I will talk about the importance of both Galen and the Hippocrates and what they did to improve the importance of medicine.
Assessment 2 - exam questions on medicine Throughout the essay I will talk about the importance of both Galen and the Hippocrates and what they did to improve the importance of medicine. Firstly I will talk about Asclepia and what part in medicine he played, and then I shall talk about the way the Hippocrates improved medicine. Then finally what Galen did in his time and why he was so important. Asclepia's was a Greek God, and he was the God of healing, he was helped by his daughters who are name after to scientific words they are named Panacea and Hygeia, they helped him throughout his healing process and being a God. Asclepia had temples named after him called Asclepion's; this was a quiet place that people went to, they believed if they went there to stay there for the night that they would be healed in the night by Asclepia and his daughters, and the next morning they would wake up completely normal again. Around the buildings there were other places to do with health care, such as baths or a gymnasium to keep fit, it was also very quiet so that people could sleep and rest in peace. Gods were a part of everyday life for all most every person, so if they couldn't afford treatment then they wouldn't think twice about going to see there God, seeing your God was never a last resort many people chose to go there first. People thought that if they went to sleep inside
Sequencing (in DNA)
Sequencing, is the process by which the DNA in an individual is decoded into its component nucleotides, the coding units of proteins. The method today involves the use of fluorescently marked dideoxynucleoside triphosphates which lack a hydroxyl group at the 3´ carbon of the deoxyribose sugar. These ddNTPs are placed in a test tube containing many identical single stranded DNA molecules (containing a primer) along with regular dNTPs. The lack of the hydroxyl group at the 3´ end of these ddNTPs leads to chain termination following their insertion onto the strand of DNA. This process is repeated many times, and the resulting strand lengths are separated by electrophoresis and their relative positions are determined (Alberts et al, 2002). Sequencing is at this moment the most powerful tool in advancing the studies of just about every area of biology. From sequencing projects, scientists have been able to decode the genes of various organisms, including humans. The information gained has been of paramount importance to the search and study for human disease-associated genes. The discovery of Restriction fragment length polymorphisms, long DNA fragments highly associated with people suffering from a particular disease, have been found through sequencing and are used extensively to predict the susceptibility of any person to a particular disease.(Human Gene testing article).
Human physiology for Health and Social Care NQF Level 3: BTEC National P2: The structures of the main tissues of the body
Unit 10: Human physiology for Health and Social Care NQF Level 3: BTEC National P2: The structures of the main tissues of the body The aim of the assignment is to describe the structures of the four main tissues are the epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscle tissue of the body. By the understanding the assignment will be focus on depict how the structure of the main tissue is, also that going to show clearly where the position of the tissues are, what its look like? Epithelial tissue Epithelial tissues are found on surfaces as either covering outer surfaces or lining inner surfaces. That's covering or lining of all internal and external surfaces of the body. The epithelial tissue is made up of cells, its characteristic shape and the number of layer cells. They have no capillaries of their own that's why the epithelial receive oxygen and nutrients from the blood supply of the connective tissue beneath them. Epithelial tissue, regardless of the type, is usually separated from the underlying tissue by a thin sheet of connective tissue; basement membrane. The basement membrane provides structural support for the epithelium and also binds it to neighbouring structures. Squamous epithelium Squamous epithelium is a single layer and flat cells. These cells are very thin and very smooth these are important physical characteristic. They form the lining
The major effects, mechanisms and major side effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the basis of the cardiovascular benefits of aspirin
The major effects, mechanisms and major side effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the basis of the cardiovascular benefits of aspirin Summary: NSAID's are used to reduce inflammation by inhibiting the production of the group of chemicals that promote inflammation. Prostaglandins are the group of chemicals that promote inflammation. They are produced by the COX-1 enzyme. Aspirin and Ibuprofen are examples of anti-inflammatory drugs. Aspirin has side effects associated with it. Examples of side effects include indigestion, heartburn and vomiting. The reason behind the indigestion side effect is because the prostaglandins are found in the stomach and when they are inhibited digestion is stopped as. An analgesic is a drug or medicine given to reduce pain without resulting in loss of consciousness. Analgesics are sometimes referred to as painkiller medications. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature. The body will then work to lower the temperature and the result is a reduction in fever. Blood clots form when a blood vessel is damaged. A type of prostaglandin called thromboxane stimulates constriction and clotting of platelets. Conversely, PGI2, is produced to have the opposite effect on the walls of blood vessels where clots should not be forming. Ibuprofen can be used to relieve pain and inflammation caused
Control of Arterial Blood Pressure and Factors Affecting it.
Control of Arterial Blood Pressure and Factors Affecting it The mean arterial pressure is the average pressure during a given cardiac cycle that exists in the aorta and its major branches. It is dependent on cardiac output and peripheral resistance. The systolic pressure is the peak value, at about 120 mm Hg, and this falls to a minimum value of about 70 mm Hg in the diastolic pressure. The pulse pressure is the difference between these two values. The pressure falls only very slightly in the large and medium sized arteries, but the main sites of peripheral resistance are the small arteries and arterioles, and here the blood pressure falls rapidly. Pulse pressure at the ends of the arterioles is about five mm Hg. Obviously, the magnitude of this drop depends on the vasoconstriction or vasodilation of the arterioles. Gravity affects blood pressure, increasing the pressure in a vessel below the heart, and decreasing it above the heart. The increase or decrease is 0.77 mm Hg/cm, so when the mean arterial pressure is 100, the pressure in the foot would be about 180 mm Hg, and in the head a pressure of about 62 mm Hg would be found. Arterial blood pressure is a controlled factor in blood circulation. Its regulation can be acute (short-term adaptation) or chronic (long-term adaptation), and the methods which control the regulation depend on which adaptation is needed. Acute
laboratory equipment - Discuss the principles behind, and the use of - The Embedding Station - The Faxitron
Sandra Richards 01.12.02 AWPL Ass.1 Essay Discuss the principles behind, and the use of: a) The Embedding Station b) The Faxitron Introduction This essay will attempt to explain the scientific, technological principles and the practical uses of the above mentioned pieces of laboratory equipment highlighting health and safety issues where appropriate. The principle of the embedding station is to accurately and precisely orientate a histological specimen into a block of paraffin wax; this will allow the support and firm hold of the tissue sample so that fine cutting of thin sections for histological diagnostic purposes can ensue. The equipment required is the Tissue tek / R A LAMB embedding station, tissue moulds (assorted sizes) and speci-ceps heated forceps. The tissue moulds are of various sizes to allow enough embedding medium to fully surround and support the tissue sample. Heated forceps are used so that any wax coming into contact with them is kept at a molten state which can be easily removed using a paper tissue, cold wax will adhere to the forceps making it very difficult to manoeuvre tissue into the correct orientation as there would be a build up of solid wax. The wax used as the embedding medium in this particular laboratory is paraffin wax. This type of wax is molten above 60oC and is in the solid state at room temperature. Its hardness is ideal
Case study on how hypoxia and electrolyte imbalances can cause Confusion/Delirium.
Case study on how hypoxia and electrolyte imbalances can cause Confusion/Delirium According to Whitaker (1989), elderly surgical patients appear to have a higher tendency to post-operative delirium in comparison to other age groups. Through countless researches (Lindesay, Macdonald & Starke, 1990; Mentes, Culp, Maas & Rantz, 1999) the determinant(s) contributing to this phenomenon remained a puzzle. Delirium is a state of temporary but acute mental confusion (Lewis Heitkemper & Dirksen, 2003). Clinically, delirium is rarely caused by a single factor. It is often the result of the interaction of the patient's underlying condition with a precipitating event. It may be the result of a combination of factors including anesthesia, major surgery, infection and prolonged sleep deprivation (Lewis et al, 2003). Delirium can also arise from hypoxia and water-electrolyte imbalances, which are caused by disruption to oxygenation and ventilation, metabolism and elimination, respectively. Since Mr Munro has had insomnia since 6 years ago after the death of his wife, him exhibiting signs of confusion post-operatively is expected. Hypoxia, an inadequate amount of oxygen in body tissue cells can occur on anyone. However, post-operative patients are at an increased risk of being diagnosed with delirium after surgery. Hypoxia is caused by the reduction in partial pressure of oxygen,
Physiological compensation of acute loss of 30-40% of blood volume in a young healthy adult male.
Physiological compensation of acute loss of 30-40% of blood volume in a young healthy adult male. The outcome of such severe blood loss is determined by the equilibrium between the rate and volume of haemorrhage and the ability of powerful physiologic compensatory mechanisms to maintain adequate and ultimately normal blood flow throughout the body. Baskett in 1990 classified hypovolaemic shock according to blood loss. Class III is defined by 30-40% blood loss (1.5-2L) and is associated with reduced SBP and DBP, HR 120, slow (>2s) capillary refill, tachypnoea, a low urine flow rate (10-20ml/h), pale complexion and extremities and anxiousness, aggressiveness or drowsiness. The reasons for these are mentioned below in italics. Haemorrhage decreases blood volume, which in turn results in a reduction in venous return to the heart. In turn, this leads to a decreased cardiac output and hence decreased arterial pressure. This renders tissue perfusion inadequate, leading to a lack of nutrient supply and build-up of waste products. If uncorrected, this clinical state, known as hypovolaemic shock, will ultimately result in multi-organ failure and death. Depending on severity, shock exhibits different characteristics and can be divided into three major stages: * Non-progressive (compensated), shock from which the normal circulatory compensation mechanisms will eventually cause
The clinical skill this reflective assignment will refer to is the measurement of blood pressure which was one of the many skills I had to perform on a daily basis.
Student number: 1103661 Assessment number F03314 Reflective skills report The purpose of this assignment is to reflect on a clinical skill which has been performed whilst out in clinical practice. The clinical skill this reflective assignment will refer to is the measurement of blood pressure which was one of the many skills I had to perform on a daily basis. Being on a rehabilitation ward for my placement gave me the opportunity to perform a variety of clinical skills. To help me reflect and explore my experience of undertaking my chosen skill, I will be using the Gibbs’ model of reflection (Gibbs 1988). A reflective model such as this has been used because, as suggested by Hargreaves (1997), reflective models are a tool that is believed to result in both improvement in patient care and professional development. Gibbs model of reflection incorporates the following: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and an action plan (Gibbs 1988). Throughout this assignment I will be referring to the student guidelines relating to the maintenance of confidentiality, which states that all relevant information gained is accurate and used to the purpose of the assignment only, in this case all personal details of the patient I will be discussing which identifies her will be excluded from the text. Also In accordance with the Nursing and Midwifery Councils (2008) Code