The nineteenth century

University Degree Medicine and Dentistry

The nineteenth century is the century of the industrial revolution and early capitalism. It is also the century of the origin of modern empirical-experimental science and medicine, the development of pharmacology, cell pathology and bacteriology (Pasteur). New instruments allowed new scientific investigations, diagnosis and a rationalisation of therapies. During this period the physical and psychical body were further separated and medicine became more and more the science of the material body. With the evolving knowledge of the different body organs, physicians started to specialise in different disciplines according to the corresponding body organs or functions. Medical treatment became available to almost the whole population and medical health and accident insurance institutions were established.

The successes booked in physic and chemistry more and more influenced and determined the medical science, methods and therapies, however did not hinder the appearance of different theoretical schools such as :

The natural philosophical physiology with the vegetative (growth, nourishment and reproductive forces), animistic (irritability of the organs and muscles) and sensitive (sensory, nerves and soul) dimension.
The natural scientific physiology which was completely based on the scientific investigation of body functions.
The cell-pathological theory of Virchow (1821-1902), who declared that all diseases resulted out of changes in the cells, and that the cell was the true organic unity of the body and the part of departure for all life. His theories were transmitted to society and resulted in the development of bio-socialism.

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The natural philosophical physiology with the vegetative (growth, nourishment and reproductive forces), animistic (irritability of the organs and muscles) and sensitive (sensory, nerves and soul) dimension.
The natural scientific physiology which was completely based on the scientific investigation of body functions.
The cell-pathological theory of Virchow (1821-1902), who declared that all diseases resulted out of changes in the cells, and that the cell was the true organic unity of the body and the part of departure for all life. His theories were transmitted to society and resulted in the development of bio-socialism.

The development of bacteriology by Louis Pasteur (1822-1885) and Robert Koch (1843-1910) for the first time proved the ill making potency of micro-organisms which initiated the science of microbiology, modern vaccination and the development of disinfecting agents to be used during surgery.

Not all physicians accepted the scientific developments in medicine and out of vitalistic and life force theories of the eighteenth century alternatives arose like the homeopathy of F.S.Hahnemann (1755-1843). According to Hahnemann disease is an affection of the life force by pathogenic disturbers and has to be seen as a holistic body phenomenon. Instead of supporting the body’s resistance, a homeopathic physician applies low or lowest doses of substances which evoke the same symptoms as caused by the disease itself. The so provoked artificial disease stimulates the life force to increased resistance.

In addition to homeopathy naturopathy developed with hydrotherapy to support the natural discharge of

The separation between body and psychic illness proceeded during this century and the brain became more and more the object of investigation for psychic illness and abnormalities (pathological- and somatic psychiatry). As for body medicine, alternatives to the scientific views were established like the psychoanalysis of S.Freud (1856-1939).

The age of Enlightenment

During the past period, thinking and handling was strongly dominated by doctrines and religion. This changed during the eighteenths century where thinking and reason became independent from the church and state. The scientific leitmotiv changed to empirism and rationalism, with systematic observations and planned experiments. Different old health and disease concepts were renewed or replaced by new ones.

Many theories were postulated which can be divided in two categories: the physical/mechanical theories and the spiritual theories as listed in Table 2. All these different theories initiated the separation between a material body orientated medicine and a soul/mind orientated medicine.

The eighteenth century is also the age of the founding of the modern hospital with inner medicine, surgery and pharmacology.

Table 2 Overview of health and disease theories in the eighteenths century