Describe the Mechanism of Action of Diuretics. How does this Help us to Understand the Mechanism of Water and Salt Movements in the Kidney.

Describe the Mechanism of Action of Diuretics. How does this Help us to Understand the Mechanism of Water and Salt Movements in the Kidney Diuretics cause an effect on the kidneys, to increase the excretion of salt and water. They are used in the treatment of heart failure and oedema (the accumulation of extracellular fluid), but also are used to treat hypertension. General Mechanism of Action Diuretics cause a net loss of water from the body by an action on the kidney, normally associated with a loss of sodium. The effect of causing increased water loss is achieved by decreasing the reabsorption of sodium and chloride from the filtrate. There are two methods of achieving this i. A direct action on the cells of the nephron ii. Indirectly modifying the content of the filtrate As the glomerulus filters such a large volume of water per day, a small decrease in reabsorption can result in a large increase in excretion of water. Diuretics Acting on the Cells of the Nephron To cause a net loss of salt by acting on cells, the diuretics must affect the parts of the nephron where the majority of the active and selective solute reabsorption occurs. These are i. The ascending loop of Henle ii. The early distal tubule iii. The collecting tubules and ducts Loop Diuretics These drugs include * Frusemide * Bumetanide * Piretanide and are the most powerful of the

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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The structure and functions of body tissues.

UNIT 2 - Human Physiology Assignment 1 - THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF BODY TISSUES Histology is the name for the study of tissues. A tissue is a group of cells which forms a specialised function. There are many different types of tissue and one type of tissue may be found in many parts of the body. In the body we have four main types of tissue which are: * Epithelial * Connective * Muscle * Nervous All these different types of tissue are needed in order for the body to function. All of these tissues have different characteristics and functions. The first type of tissue to look at is: Epithelial Tissue There are 6 main types of epithelial tissue: * Squamous epithelium * Cubodial epithelium * Columnar epithelium * Ciliated epithelium * Compound transitional epithelium * Glandular epithelium Squamous Epithelium Simple squamous These are usually made up of thin flat scale like cells, which rest on the basement of the membrane. This type of tissue can be found in renal capsules of the kidneys, alveoli of the lungs and blood capillary walls. They are usually found in these areas as the thinness of the cells allows diffusion of materials through them. Therefore the main functions are to reduce friction, and to perform absorption and secretion. Stratified squamous Stratified squamous are made up of several layers of cells. They are like simple sqarmous cells

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Euthanasia is unacceptable. Do you agree? Thesis statement: A lot of people think physicianassisted death or euthanasia should be an option available to a patient; however, others strongly believe that due to many reasons it must not be accepted by so

Essay question: Euthanasia is unacceptable. Do you agree? Outline I. Introduction Thesis statement: A lot of people think physician-assisted death or euthanasia should be an option available to a patient; however, others strongly believe that due to many reasons it must not be accepted by society. II. Body A. Firstly, there are moral and ethical questions concerning euthanasia. . Sacredness of human life 2. Hippocratic Oath 3. Responsibility for deprivation of life B. Secondly, medical factor plays an efficient role in the decision of ending the life. . Probability of doctor's mistake 2. Cases of recovery 3. Insensible judgements C. Finally, religious aspect is also important. . God's will 2. Value of suffering D. However, proponents of euthanasia have arguments that can prove the sufficient side of the issue. . Way to relief 2. Freedom of choice III. Conclusion In conclusion, while the supporters insist on permitting euthanasia, opponents are convinced that it should be forbidden. Euthanasia is unacceptable Is euthanasia a "Death with dignity bill" or an "Assisted suicide"? (Robinson, 2004, p.1). This question is still raised among those who support and who are against euthanasia. The word itself came from the Greek language with the meaning "good death", but for the first time the term "euthanasia" was offered by the English philosopher Francis Bacon

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  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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MMR Vaccination.

MMR Vaccination MMR vaccine is a three part vaccine, given by injection, which is to protect (immunise) against Measles, Mumps and German Measles (Rubella). In the UK it is given to children at 12 to 15 months, with a reinforcing dose (a booster) before school, usually between 3 and 5 years. The Vaccine The vaccine is a freeze-dried preparation which contains live virus particles of the three viruses, which have been modified (attenuated) to stop them from producing the full effects of the disease. The vaccine is given, by injection, into the upper arm, thigh or buttock. It has been found that a booster, before school, makes it likely that more people will be properly protected. The idea is to fool the body's defence system into thinking it is under attack by the viruses, and to produce defence mechanisms (antibodies) which will fight off the conditions if they are encountered in the future. There is no risk of someone who has been vaccinated infecting other people with the viruses. Usually the vaccine is for children, but it can be given to non-immune adults. It is suggested that people in long term institutional care, who are not immune, should have the vaccine. It is also recommended that

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Cholera, tuberculosis, AIDS and malaria are the world's largest killers. Compare the diseases with regard to epidemiology, social problems and the role of drugs

Joshua Randell Biology 27/4/04 Cholera, tuberculosis, AIDS and malaria are the world's largest killers. Compare the diseases with regard to epidemiology, social problems and the role of drugs Epidemiological differences Disease Cholera Malaria AIDS Tuberculosis Pathogen Vibrio Cholerae Plasmodium Falciparum (usually for human malaria) HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) Mycobacterium Tuberculosis (in humans) Methods of transmission Food or water borne. Passed on in contaminated, untreated foodstuffs Insect vector: female anopheles mosquito In semen and vaginal fluids during sexual intercourse, infected blood or blood products, contaminated hypodermic syringes, across placenta, through breast milk Airborne droplets, via unpasteurised milk Global distribution Asia, Africa, Latin America Tropical and sub-Tropical areas Worldwide, particularly in southern Africa and SE Asia Worldwide Incubation Period - 5 days A week to a year Initial incubation a few weeks, but up to ten years or more before AIDS symptoms may develop Few weeks or months Site of action of pathogen Wall of small intestine Liver, red blood cells, brain T helper lymphocytes, macrophages, brain cells Primary infection in lungs; secondary infections in lymph nodes, bones and gut Clinical features Severe diarrhoea, like rice water. Loss of water and salts, dehydration and

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  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Sane in Insane Places.

Rosenhan DL (1973): Sane in Insane Places (Science 179, 250-58) Background Psychological diagnosis- an attempt to classify oddness in people. -Very difficult to do Observers often cannot agree on a diagnosis. Classification can lead to the carers ignoring the signs and symptoms that do not fall into the diagnostic pattern. Benefits? Hopefully an understanding of needs and effective treatment. History: Greeks- senility, alcoholism, mania, melancholia, paranoia. Kraepelin (1896)- 1st comprehensive system of psychological disorders. He believed that diagnosis should be based on the careful observations of symptoms (like physical illness). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (1952- DSM) The Study The definition and categorisation of abnormality is difficult and controversial. Rosenhan asks, 'if sanity and insanity exist, how shall we know them?' He questions whether madness, like beauty, is in the eye of the beholder. "Do the salient characteristics that lead to diagnosis of abnormality reside in the patients themselves, or in the environment and contexts in which observers find them?" If 'normal' people attempt to be admitted to psychiatric hospitals, will they be detected as being sane, and if so how? Subjects 8 'sane' people: a graduate, 3 psychologists, a paediatrician, a painter, a housewife

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  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Iron Acquisition In Disease: Anything You Can Do I Can Do Better

Anything You Can Do, I Can Do Better For the most part, the commensal bacteria, and the humans on which they live, live in a balanced symbiotic relationship. However, the bacteria may, if the circumstances are right, take the form of opportunistic pathogens e.g. a minor number of Escherichia coli strains are the common causes of urinary tract infections, which can develop further to septicaemia if not treated adequately (Ron 2010). Another opportunistic pathogenic commensal is Staphylococcus aureus, which may also cause a systemic infection if it breaches the normal colonisation sites (Stauff, Bagaley et al. 2008). In order for such opportunists to be successful in causing systemic infection, they must fulfil 2 requirements: 1) they must be able to survive in the serum, which is full of bactericidals such as immune cells and the complement proteins, and 2) they must be effective at gaining nutrients, particularly iron, from the host (Ron 2010, Stauff, Bagaley et al. 2008, Anzaldi, Skaar 2010). Failure to perform these 2 tasks almost invariably denotes a failure in the bacterium's ability to systemically infect and survive. Iron is essential for literally all organisms, for metalloenzyme use, and Fe-S clusters in redox and metabolism, in protection against oxidative stress, and also in immunity by promoting T cell clonal proliferation, and ROS production in phagocytes for

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  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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istopes used in medical science

Isotopes Used In Medical Treatments Isotopes are several different forms of an element that have different mass numbers. But they are having same proton numbers but different neutron numbers. The term Isotope has suggested by Fredrick Soddy, a chemist at Glasgow University in 1921. These form of elements have different advantages and disadvantages. Mostly it depends on the type of element. Nuclear medicine was developed in the 1950s they are really helpful in modern medical field. Because it can cure so many dangerous diseases like cancers and tumours. Basically radioisotopes are the useful type that is been used up for medical treatments. There are thousands of different forms of radioisotopes that can be classed as very useful medically approved elements. Radioisotopes seemed to be dangerous and cautious from the outside look. But they can be handle carefully and store in safe places for treatments. Many of them are made in nuclear reactors and in cyclotrons. Today most of the medical isotopes are imported from United States but the growing demand rate is really high. So there aren't enough supplies to whole globe. Radioisotopes used for medical treatments are really expensive but 98% of are successful and effective. Modern medical industry has able to get rid of the fast growing number of cancer patient per year from these treatments. The doctors who deal with nuclear

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  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Scleroderma and Society

IB Biology Essay Scleroderma and Society Mimi You 42883 December 16, 2004 Gabbott You wake up in the morning and your body feels heavy and fatigued as if you've just run a marathon, and your joints feel like their burning, but all you've done is sit up on the bed. You find it hard to breathe and there is a painful, swollen sensation in your feet and hands that makes you feel as if they were about to burst and when you touch your face it feels stiff and unnatural. When you stand up off the bed and try to make it to the bathroom, within seconds you need to sit down again, the only way you can get around is by wheelchair. Today's a school day so you have to be efficient, put on your shoes which are a size too big because your feet get too swollen, brush your hair into a ponytail to try and hide thinnest areas, and get to class and listen as carefully as you can because your hands are so stiff and swollen you can't manage writing notes (Senécal, 1990), (Seibold, 1999), (Blau and Dodi, 1984). This is what a day in Ashley Looper's life is like, a teenage girl who was diagnosed with several forms of autoimmune disorders, including mixed connective tissue disease, lupus erythematosus, juvenile arthritis and scleroderma. Autoimmune responses occur when the body is not able to recognize it's own cells, which prompts the body to reject it's cells by producing antibodies for the

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Clinical care case study. Mrs. Burton was left with a mixture of emotion mostly feeling of dissatisfaction after her appointment, especially as she had been so nervous and apprehensive about seeing the doctor in the first place. Mrs. Burton had suspected

Name: Nazrean Sajawal GT Group: 12 Guidance Tutor: Fiona Watson Foundation Studies Intake: March 2010 Cohort Module Marker: Submission Date: 4th January 2011 Module Title: This assignment will be identifying a service user from my clinical placement as well as discussing an episode of care that was received from a service user's perspective. This occurred during one of the days that the student nurse worked at the clinical placement. The term for person centre care is mentioned frequently in the older people literature, particularly in dementia care. Brooker (2004, p.219) proposes that 'in person-centred care the relationships between all the people in the care environment should be nurtured'. Similarly, McCormack (2004) proposes that relationships, environmental conditions and individual values epitomise person-centred gerontological nursing. The name of patient and the clinical placement will not be named as it preaches one of the codes of conduct from the Nursing and Midwifery Council, which is confidentiality (NMC, 2008). Throughout the assignment the service user will be called Mrs. Burton. The nurse patient relationship appears to be good between the student nurse and Mrs. Burton. Therefore, it was consider relevant to interview Mrs. Burton who had a positive and negative experience on care that they had received. There will also be relevant literature to

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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