Muscular Dystrophy

Muscular Dystrophy Muscular dystrophy is characterized by the progressive weakening of skeletal muscles. Patients with this genetic disorder will go through three stages. Firstly, the increase of muscle weakness, secondly, the reduction in muscle mass and thirdly the complete loss of muscle function. In the 3rd stage the patient will be confined to a wheelchair. Four forms of the disease are recognized and based on > pattern of inheritance > age when symptoms are first noted > distribution of the muscles earliest involved In the Duchenne form of the disease, symptoms are usually prominent from about 2 to 6 years of age. The muscles first affected are those of the pelvis and trunk, resulting in spinal deformity and a waddling way of walking. By the late teens, the wasting of almost all muscle groups may be advanced. Calf muscles often enlarge. Survival is rare beyond the late twenties and death may result from respiratory weakness or from involvement of the heart muscle. Because inheritance of this form is by an X-linked recessive mechanism (females are carriers), virtually all sufferers are boys. The facio-scapulo-humeral form of the disease affects both sexes equally and results in weakness and wasting of the shoulders, upper arms and facial muscles. It is usually distinguished around the commencement of puberty. The majority of patients remain able to walk until an

  • Word count: 490
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Identification of traces left on skeleton by trauma. Due to the ability of the human body to redevelop new bones, trauma left on the skeleton can be identified as bones generally do not heal back to the exact same way they were.

Identification of the traces left on the skeleton by trauma In the human skeleton, bones break and repair by themselves. Bones are solid matters that contain minerals, produce red blood cells and store fat. The bones in our bodies are constantly changing-undergoing bone remodeling: cells called osteoclasts break down the old bone and osteaoblasts replace it with new tissues. These two types of cells along with chondroblasts (cartilage formation) are responsible for the growth of bones throughout life. Due to the ability of the human body to redevelop new bones, trauma left on the skeleton can be identified as bones generally do not heal back to the exact same way they were. When fractures occur, a clot (called fracture hematoma) is formed as a result of blood leaking from veins near the bone. The clot helps the broken bone to stabilize and keeps the two broken parts together for mending. Inflammation then follows and tiny blood vessels grow into the fracture hematoma to stimulate the healing process. A few days later, a soft callus will form from the fracture hematoma and fibers of collagen start to appear. A type of cartilage called fibro cartilage will be created and it causes the callus to be tougher which bridge the gap between the two pieces of bone. Lastly, osteoblasts play a role in turning the callus into bone callus which provides necessary protection to the

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Differentiate between blood vessels relating the structure of each to its function.

Amanda Alderson Access to Healthcare (day) 8th November 2003 Differentiate between blood vessels relating the structure of each to its function. Basic Introduction to the human circulatory system The human body has two blood circulatory systems, the first being that blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary artery and travels to the lungs where the body gives up carbon dioxide and takes on oxygen. The blood then returns to the heart through the Pulmonary vein. This blood flow is called the pulmonary circuit.The other circuit is called the systematic circuit, the blood leaves the heart through the aorta carrying oxygen rich blood and travels to organs throughout the body and returns back to the heart through veins. The right half of the heart circulates blood from the body to the lungs, the left side of the heart circulates blood from lungs around the body. The heart has its own set of blood vessels to keep it in healthy working condition. These vessels are called the coronary artery and vein. The structure of arteries and veins are very similar and the structure of each is very much related to its function. Tunica Adventitia- this is the strong outer covering of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue, collagen and elastic fibres. Tunica Media-This is the milled layer of walls in veins and arteries. This consists of smooth muscle and elastic fibre.

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Laser safety. Due to an advance in technology and intelligence in the medical world, a number of better and more efficient treatments have been developed, and among these are the light based treatments that are now being used to treat a wide range of cli

Running head: LASER SAFETY AND LIGHT BASED TREATMENTS Laser safety and light based treatments Name: Course: Professor: Date: Introduction Due to an advance in technology and intelligence in the medical world, a number of better and more efficient treatments have been developed, and among these are the light based treatments that are now being used to treat a wide range of clinical conditions. The light based treatments use laser beams. Laser which basically means Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation works by emitting a powerful beam of light which travels in a specific direction (Silvfast, 2004). This beam is able cut through and seal skin tissue as well as blood vessels. The laser has the capability of producing a certain colour of light also known as the wavelength, which tends to vary in strength (Hecht, 1999).This paper will provide information on the different types of lasers, their general use as well as their wavelengths. It will also identify the hazards that may arise due to laser use, and also provide viable information on their safe use, storage and maintenance in the clinic. It is important to note that high power lasers are dangerous, due to their potential to burn important body parts and probably inhibit their functioning (Nouri, 2011). In order to minimize the risks of harm, a number of classes are specified. These classes are

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Calcium transport study of SF-9 lepidopteran cells and bull frog sympathetic ganglion cells

Calcium transport study of SF-9 lepidopteran cells and bull frog sympathetic ganglion cells ABSTRACT The intracellular calcium level and the calcium efflux of the bull-frog sympathetic ganglion cells (BSG) and the SF-9 lepidopteran ovarian cells were investigated using a calcium-sensitive fluorescence probe fura-2. It was found that the intracellular calcium levels were 58.2 and 44.7 nM for the BSG cells and SF-9 cells respectively. The calcium effluxes following zero calcium solution were 2.02 and 1.33 fmole·cm-2·s-1 for the BSG cells and SF-9 cells. The calcium effluxes following sodium orthovanadate (Na2VO4) in zero calcium solution were 6.00 and 0.80 fmole·cm-2·s-1 for the BSG cells and the SF-9 cells. The SF-9 cells also lost the ability to extrude intracellular calcium after 2-3 applications of Na2VO4 while the BSG cells showed no apparent lost of calcium extruding abilities for up to 4 applications of Na2VO4. INTRODUCTION Spodoptera frugiperda clone 9 (SF-9) cells are a cultured insect cell line derived from the butterfly ovarian tissue. SF-9 cells are used by molecular biologists for the studies of gene expression and protein processing (Luckow and Summers, 1988). However, there is not much known about these cells' basic biophysiology. Since calcium is involved in many cells' activities such as acting as a secondary messenger, it is important for cells to

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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WHAT IS CVD, WHAT INCREASES THE RISK OF CVD AND WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE NON-SURGICAL TREATMENTS?

WHAT IS CVD, WHAT INCREASES THE RISK OF CVD AND WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE NON-SURGICAL TREATMENTS? A cardiovascular disease(CVD) is a disease of the heart and blood vessels, including coronary heart disease, angina, myocardial infarction, thrombosis and strokes. The common factor between a majority of cardiovascular diseases is the process called atherosclerosis, which is the hardening, thickening and loss of elasticity of blood vessel walls; this is the build-up of plaque on the inside of arteries. Fat deposits called atheromas build up under the endothelium of the artery walls from low density lipoproteins. Collagen fibres may also be laid down with the fat, forming irregular raised patches which narrows the lumen of the artery and inhibits the flow of blood along the artery[1] figure 1[2]. Connective tissue is then formed over the developing plaque which is then hardened by the deposition of calcium salts[1]. Blood is an important transport medium for carrying oxygen to the heart. The narrowing of the artery means there is not enough oxygen reaching the heart, and the heart may respond to this with a chest pain called angina. Further narrowing of the lumen of the artery can completely cut off the blood flow to the heart, depriving it of oxygen which can then lead to tissue necrosis[1]. This death of an area of the heart muscle weakens the heart

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Obsessive compulsive disorder (also known as OCD) is characterised by high anxiety. During this disorder individuals often have both obsessions and compulsions; resulting to a significant interference with everyday life

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder We all have mild obsessions; they may be anything from superstitions, for example not walking under ladders, to something as simple as bedtime stories or religious practices. The difference between these mild obsessions and to someone with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is very simple: the huge intensity of the thoughts, the difficulty stopping them and the compulsions that sit along side them. Obsessive compulsive disorder (also known as OCD) is characterised by high anxiety. During this disorder individuals often have both obsessions and compulsions; resulting to a significant interference with everyday life. Both males and females are affected by OCD, which according to the NHS 'affects approximately 2% of the population'. Though symptoms for OCD regularly begin during the early adulthood, it is not uncommon for young children to develop the condition. The exact cause of OCSD is unknown, doctors believe there are many factors that contribute to this disorder. Symptoms are very varied with OCD. The most common symptoms include; excessive cleaning, a constant checking of things and a feeling of having to do this a certain amount of times. Signs and Symptoms Obsessions The foundation for OCD explains obsessions to be 'thoughts images or impulses that occur over and over again and feel out of our control'. Obsessions are usually

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Nic otine replacement treatment (NRT) - smoking cessation program.

Nic otine replacement treatment (NRT) - smoking cessation program. How it works: NRT lessens the nicotine withdrawal and the cravings by supplying the body with nicotine without out the carcinogens, tar or toxic gases that cigarettes contain. People often become addicted to the nicotine because it increases certain chemical levels such as dopamine and norepinephrine in their brains. After quitting from smoking, the levels of these chemicals drop and the bodies react by having nicotine withdrawal symptoms. NRT increases the levels of dopamine and norepinephrine just like nicotine does. If the NRT doses are taken as directed, the chemical levels in the brain are kept at a constant level so withdrawal symptoms will be reduced when a person stops smoking. The nicotine replacement therapy types include nicotine patches, nicotine gum, lozenges, inhalers, tablets and nicotine nasal spray. When a smoker has a cigarette, the nicotine in the smoke moves quickly across the tissues in their lungs and then into the bloodstream. Nicotine patches The nicotine patches are an effective way of releasing nicotine into the bloodstream via the skin. These patches are attached to the upper body; they slowly release the nicotine which is absorbed through the skin. The patches are available in three strengths, designed with the main aim to gradually decrease the smoker's addiction to the

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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How does attachment influence the social and emotional development of the child? In your answer refer to the usefulness and the critiques of the attachment theory.

How does attachment influence the social and emotional development of the child? In your answer refer to the usefulness and the critiques of the attachment theory. A child's social and emotional development has significant implications for the social functioning of a child throughout their lives, in their education, friendships and employment. A child with poor or social and emotional development are at risk of experiencing poor relationships with peers, academic problems and can lead them into involvement in unsociable activities or crime. Research suggests the key to social and emotional development lies in the child's early relationship with parents and caregivers. It is believed that children develop and thrive better when they are brought up in an environment where the caregiver satisfies a child's needs physically and emotionally. Throughout the Late 1930s and 1940s a psychologist John Bowlby investigated the nature and the purpose of the close relationships that a person forms with people throughout their lives, in particular, childhood. He researched the making and breaking of bonds to understand the psychological behaviour and social and emotional development of human being (Howe, 1995, P46). As a result of these investigations and studies Bowlby developed a theory called the 'Attachment Theory'. The basis of this theory is that "the infant and young child

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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Choose three congenital abnormalities of the urinary system. Describe their symptoms, how they are thought to arise, and how they are treated.

Essay 3: Choose three congenital abnormalities of the urinary system. Describe their symptoms, how they are thought to arise, and how they are treated. The formation of the urinary system is a very complicated process that occurs in several stages through foetal development. A congenital abnormality is an abnormality that develops before birth. Such abnormalities can effect any aspect of the urinary system, from the kidneys and ureters to the bladder and ducts to the exterior of the body. Some abnormalities are asymptomatic and only discovered by chance. However, there are several that are serious and need to be dealt with. Examples of these include hypospadias, autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease and ureteropelvic junction obstruction, each of which will be discussed in greater detail. Hypospadias: This congenital abnormality affects 1 in 300 male births, and has three main features. The first is that the opening of the urethra is on the ventral side of the penis. There are different classifications of hypospadias depending on how far along the urethra the opening is: Site of opening of urethra Classification of hypospadias Glans of the penis Glandular hypospadias Junction of glans and shaft of the penis Coronal hypospadias Shaft of the penis Penile hypospadias The table highlights the common forms of hypospadias, the most common form being

  • Word count: 1253
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Medicine and Dentistry
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