Impact of stress on performance

“If an athlete can’t handle excessive levels of stress, the successful performances on “the big day” will be very elusive” (Bull et al, 1997) .The pressure of competing in sports events can affect an individual’s performance in many different ways. Some athletes thrive on the pressure of a big sporting event, however others loathe it. Even the best and most talented athletes in the world are not always guaranteed victory on physical skill alone, they need to have good mental skills as this play’s a huge part in their performance. When examining why some athletes only perform their best under pressure and why others fall short of the mark, it is vital to look at the relationship between stress and performance and also how athletes can using controlling mechanisms to achieve their best performance.

At the elite level there are a variety of skill levels in various sports. Bull et al (1997) explains that “the major factor determining the winner from the loser is the ability to cope with the psychological pressure.” Many argue that if an athlete has an outstanding technique then this is the only beneficial factor in success, however Mathers (2006) explains that “a given task can seem very different depending on the circumstances.” Stress level exists in an athlete’s performance when the demands of the situation are perceived to exceed current ability. “Stress is a perception of success or non-success” (Mathers, 2006).

Anxiety and arousal are also very important when it comes to stress. For example, if a golfer takes a stroke in a low stress and casual situation then the player has no pressure on his/her performance and therefore no reason to be stressed. On the other hand, if the situation is reversed and they are about to play a putt which would clinch the U.S Masters or another prestigious title then he/she is under a great deal more pressure. As the shot becomes more important and stressful then the athlete’s level of arousal increases and the athlete may become anxious. Woods (1998) states that “arousal is a physiological state of alertness and anticipation which prepares the body for action.” Arousal is closely linked to anxiety which is described by Woods as a vague form of fear or apprehension that is created by awareness of arousal. Anxiety is a negative emotional state and negatively dealing with stress can lead to high levels of anxiety. Woods explains that “anxiety is seen as threatening because we doubt our ability to cope with the situation. This can result in avoidance of a shot, for example, in golf or snooker. “When feeling anxious, athletes have been found to be more prone to employ avoidance” (Cockerill, 2002).

Woods (1998) explains that there are two was to examine at anxiety; the trait anxiety or state anxiety. Anxiety can be seen as part of one’s personality, which is trait, or it can be seen “as a temporary emotional state in response to a situation regarded as threatening” (Woods, 1998), which is state anxiety. Both state and trait dimensions show themselves as cognitive and somatic symptoms. An athlete with a high anxiety trait is likely to be more anxious in stress situations. “To help the athlete control competitive anxiety somatic techniques (relaxation) and cognitive techniques (mental imagery) can be used.” ...

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The inverted U theory described by Cox (2002, p202) explains that “the relationship between arousal and performance” is a vital component in the study of an athlete’s performance. The inverted U is a basic theory that suggests that arousal causes increase in performance, but only up to a certain point. The optimal level of arousal varies between sports. For example a golfer making a putt in golf will require a lower level of arousal than a weight lifter completing a bench press, whom will require a high level of arousal. Likewise, Cox (2002, p203) explains that a beginner in tennis will require a lower level of arousal than an advanced player of the game. Cox (2002, p202) believes that the arousal/performance relationship is “performance is lowest when arousal is very high or very low, and the highest when arousal is moderate, or optimum.” Another theory which is similar is Murphy’s, (1995, p96) who states that arousal and poor performance basically come as one.

Another theory that links performance with skill is the drive theory that was developed by Hull (1943). Cox (2002, p207) states that “the great contribution of the drive theory is that it helps to explain the relationship between performance and arousal.” A key component to the drive theory is the performers’ level of ability in a skill. The drive theory basically says that if the performers’ arousal increases then their performance should also increase. A graph of the drive theory will show a constant and linear line from low to high in both level of arousal and quality of performance.

The final theory that will be looked at is the Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF). ZOF was developed by Hanin (1989) and it takes into consideration that one person’s optimum state of anxiety may not be the same as another’s. According to Hanin if it is possible to determine an athletes’ optimal ‘prestart’ anxiety level then it is therefore possible to help that athlete achieve their ideal level through arousal control techniques.

As an athlete begins to feel the pressure and become increasingly more stressed over the outcome and importance of a putt, penalty or free throw, for example, then their internal environment may begin to become affected and the outcomes of this may affect their performance. Key to the theory of ZOF is the autonomic nervous system (ANS) which is part of the central nervous system. Wilmore and Costill (1999, p69) describe the ANS as an “integral part [of the body] that controls your bodies involuntary internal functions.” Some of the functions which are included in this that are important to sport and activity include; heart rate, blood pressure and muscular tension.

The ANS has two central components. It has the parasympathetic nervous system (or the sympathetic nervous system) which Campbell and Reece (2005, p1026) like to refer to as the “fight or flight response.” The sympathetic nervous system is the main element of control when you are highly anxious. Wilmore and Costill (1999, p69) explain, “It prepares your body to face a crisis.” When you are excited, your sympathetic nervous system produces a massive discharge throughout your body, preparing you for action. The effects which this may have on the athlete therefore are increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, increased sweating and an increase in muscular tension. This in turn affects the outcome of your performance. Cox (2002, p126) comments on how quickly and intensely your heart rate can be changed due to the sympathetic nervous system.

There are many methods now that can be used to measure arousal level. Cox however, comments that, “no single measure of arousal can be considered completely accurate as correlations among the various measures of arousal are very low.” (2002, p127) Heart rate is one way to measure excitement in the body. It is described by Cox (2002, p128) as an easy way to detect arousal. To do this athletes are connected to an electrocardiograph, which is a device for measuring electrical activity in the heart. The heart rate alone, however, is seen as a poor single indicator of arousal.

Respiration rate is another way to measure levels of arousal. This is conducted with a Spiro meter, which measures the athlete’s respiration rate, tidal volume and inspiratory capacity. Cox (2002, p128) describes the testing of respiration rate “a fairly reliable indicator of heightened arousal.”

The measurement of muscular tension is another way that arousal levels can be measured. The electrical potential of muscles can be measured with an electromyography. This is a device that will measure electrical activity in muscle. Cox (2002,p128) explains that this method of measurement of arousal is very successful because it has been shown that muscle tension levels are roughly equivalent to levels of arousal. Studies on basketball players by Kavussanu, Crews and Gill (1998) showed a successful relationship between muscle tension and arousal levels through the use of an electromyography on the free throw in basketball, which is considered a highly stressful situation.

Different athletes have different levels of arousal. Some have a very low level of arousal meaning that they require more motivation to reach their peak performance and others have a very high level of arousal which means that they require very little or perhaps no motivation to reach their peak performance. Skilled athletes are able to identify their correct level of arousal and from this they can “have a stable mood state, have a disciplined calmness 24 hours prior to competition and are task focused rather than anxiety focused” (Mathers, 2006).

There are many strategies that athletes can use to regulate anxiety. Strategies such as Progressive Muscular Relaxation (P.M.R), behavioural control, positive self statement and imagery are all methods that athletes, particularly elite athletes, use to regulate arousal so they can perform at their optimum level. P.M.R is a widely used method which helps to relax muscles which are tensed due to stressful conditions. “P.M.R causes deep muscular relaxation in muscle groups, tensed under stressful conditions.”(www.twilightbridge.com, 2006) P.M.R works by tensing up a particular muscle group for 5 seconds then releasing the muscle group. It is advised that you work on each muscle group twice as it gives maximum relaxation to the muscle group. Website www.guidetopsychology.com explains that the more P.M.R that is done, the better you will become at it. “Through repetitive practice you quickly learn to recognize—and distinguish—the associated feelings of a tensed muscle and a completely relaxed muscle” (www.guidetopsychology.com, 2006). By being able to recognize the signs of muscular tension, the athlete can stimulate physical muscular relaxation at the first signs of the tension that accompanies anxiety.

Positive self statements or ‘self talk’ is another way that athletes can regulate arousal and anxiety to perform at their highest ability. Mathers (2006) says that “if you concentrate on what you are going to do rather than how you are going to do it then you are more likely to succeed.” Cox (2002, p148) also describes self talk as “an attentional strategy designed to focus an athlete on positive thoughts and behaviors.” It is critically important that the athlete approaches each sporting situation with a positive belief and attitude that they will succeed. Cox (2002, p149) also explains that “if a negative thought comes into consciousness, they must be removed or displaced with positive thoughts.”

The final strategy which I examined that is used regulate arousal is imagery. “Imagery creates the optimal level of arousal within the athlete” (Mathers, 2006). There are three types of imagery that can be used; Visual Internal imagery which is what you see when performing, Visual External Imagery which is how you would see your whole body doing the performance, and Kinesthetic Imagery which is what you see and feel while doing the performance. By involving all three types of imagery in practice and game situations then it is believed that an athlete will be able to create your ZOF.

Regulating arousal to cope with stressful situations in sport is a vital part to an athlete’s performance and can perhaps be seen as equally important to skill level. “The major factor determining the winner from the loser is the ability to cope with the psychological pressure.” (Bull et al, 1991) As it has already been discussed there are various ways in which an athlete can regulate arousal levels, however these strategies cannot only be used solely before a key event, they must be practiced regularly and used in training situations as well as performance situations. By using these mental regulation strategies, this can help separate the world class from the elite and this can explain why some athletes produce their best performance during a pressure situation.

References

Bull, S et al (1997). ‘The arousal Management Plan’, The Mental game plan. (6).

Mathers, J (2006). Lecture Notes: 7-8 Anxiety in sport. Stirling University, Stirling

Mathers, J (2006). Lecture Notes: 11-12 Imagery and sports performance. Stirling University, Stirling

Woods, B (1998). ‘Arousal, Anxiety and stress in Performance’, Psychology of sport (4).

Cockerill, I (2002). ‘Enhancing the Quality and Quantity of motivation: the promotion of task involvement in junior football teams’ , Solutions in Sports Psychology (4).

www.brianmac.demon.co.uk – Date visited 14/3/06

Cox, R (2002) Sports Psychology, Concepts and Applications (8)(9)(12)

Murphy, S.M (1995). ‘Competitive Recreational athletes: A multisystematic Model’ ,Sports psychology interventions (4).

Wilmore, J.H and Costill, D.C (1999) ‘Neurological Control of Movement’, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (2)

Campbell, N.A and Reece, J.B (2005) ‘Nervous Systems’, Biology 7th Edition (48)