To determine the solubility of calcium hydroxide.
Aim: To determine the solubility of calcium hydroxide Introduction and definitions Titration is an analytical method in which a standard solution is used to determine the concentration of another solution. Because titration is an analytical technique, the proper method must be used if you are going to get meaningful quantitative results. A titration is a process in which a measured volume of a solution is added to a reaction mixture until some observable property has changed. An acid/base titration uses the fact that one can be "neutralized" with the other. In this neutralization reaction, the acid and base will combine to produce a salt plus water. When done correctly, the resulting solution will be "neutral" neither acid nor base. In a titration, this is known as the end point. The change in pH of the solution can be monitored using an indicator. It is extremely important that the exact amounts of each solution used be known at the end point. A neutralisation reaction is the process in which the acidity or alkalinity of a substance is destroyed. Destroying acidity means removing the H+ (aq) ions by reaction with a base. Destroying alkalinity means removing the OH- (aq) ions by reaction with an acid. The acid and alkali particles must be in exactly equal amounts to get a perfectly neutral solution. Neutralisation Acid + Alkali = Salt + Water H+(aq) + OH- (aq) = H20
Lewis Acid-Base, Molecular Modeling and Isotopic Labeling. The objective of this experiment is to analyze and compare infrared spectroscopy to characterize the two adducts formed in the laboratory, H3B-NH2(C4H9) and D3B-NH2(C4H9). Changes in the spectra d
Lewis Acid-Base, Molecular Modeling and Isotopic Labeling Introduction The objective of this experiment is to analyze and compare infrared spectroscopy to characterize the two adducts formed in the laboratory, H3B-NH2(C4H9) and D3B-NH2(C4H9). Changes in the spectra due to isotopic labeling will be noted and compared to values calculated using the equation . According to Hooke's law, V(x) = 1/22kx, the stretching frequency of a diatomic bond in a molecule is related to the mass, m, and the force constant of the bond, k, by the formula1 where k is the force constant, ? is the frequency of the stretching vibration and, where MA is the mass of one atom and MB is the mass of the second atom; this is known as the reduced mass. In Hooke's law it is shown that the frequency for a stretching vibration would change if one of the atoms were replaced with an atom of a different mass (such as an isotope) or if the bond strength were changed. A reasonable estimation of the changed IR band can be determined using the diatomic molecule vibration frequency model2 where ? is the vibrational frequency of the stretching bond and µ=, which is the reduced mass. If the ratio of the reduced masses of the original diatomic bond and the isotopic diatomic bond is greater than 1, the isotope replacement will cause vibrational frequency wavenumbers to increase (shift to the left); if it is less
political affairs cousework
Many people never consider the possibility of joining the political field. But why? Is it because it appears too daunting? Does it seem too cut- throat and competitive? Or does it just sound boring? In an attempt to find out more and to hopefully dispel these misconceptions, I decided to ask those within the political field for the truth. While it is a highly competitive field to get into, once you have established yourself in any department, it is very hard to leave the political world. Your department invests a lot in you- including funding of extra degrees, and they encourage working across departments- allowing you to increase your scope. There is so much depth and breadth to the field, so many opportunities available, from working abroad to learning new skills and acquiring new knowledge. Many could argue that it is a world of it's own where every kind of discipline can coexist. From administrative work, to public affairs, to IT, to marketing- the political field is not a closed shop. Farzana Sunderji, a qualified barrister, decided to move into a career of politics to broaden her experience and see what she could achieve. She found the bar challenging and insular and wanted to become a part of the bigger picture. She now works for a minister in the Foreign Office who deals with issues such as human rights, drugs and international crime, climate change and
Chemiluminescence of Luminol
Chemiluminescence of Luminol Introduction In this experiment, luminol was mixed with hydrogen peroxide (an oxidising agent) resulting in chemiluminescence. The experimentis designed to see how the duration of luminescence is affected by varying temperatures. It has been made to be deliberately inaccurate, so another objective would be to see whether subjective observations can be improved by repetition and averaging. Chemiluminescence is the production of light from a release of energy in a chemical reaction without the aid of heat. The light produced is due to electrons being given an excess of energy and this energy being released as the electrons revert to their ground state, a luminescent light being given off as a result. An important use of this reaction is in forensic science where luminol and hydrogen peroxide are used to highlight samples of blood at a crime scene. The two chemicals react readily due to the iron present in haemoglobin, giving off a luminescent glow as a result. Chemiluminescence occurs even in living organisms where it is termed bioluminescence. Using fireflies as an example, a reaction where luciferin combines with adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) and reacts with the enzyme luciferase. The action of the enzyme acting on luciferase simulates something similar to luminol and a peroxide being catalysed by a transition metal catalyst, providing
The Effect of Intervase with Substrate,pH and Temperature
The Effect of Intervase with Substrate, pH and Temperature Abstract: An investigation into how temperature, substrate concentration and pH can affect the activity of intervase was carried out. In this investigation the intervase was put under 3 different conditions to also see if its optimum potential can be reached as well. This was found to be the case in the temperature investigation where the enzymes optimum reached 60oC and for the pH it reached pH4. These were due to the facts that the enzymes were moving faster with increasing kinetic energy. Implications of this investigation included the fact that the pH results didn't come out so well, this could be due to a number of errors (such as incorrect measurement). Further investigation could look at comparing different enzymes under the same 3 conditions and see how their activity is affected. Introduction: In this experiment intervase and substrate are used, both of these proteins are enzymes. Enzymes are biological catalysts in the body which speed up the rate of a reaction without being used up. They are also very specific due to the active site being able to exactly match up with the substrate it's reacting with. The rate at which enzymes work can be speeded up by an increase in concentration, this due to the face that more substrates are available for the enzyme to react with. The reaction will eventually remain
Experiment - the identification of milk sugar will be determined by paper chromatography - The estimation of concentration of lactose, which is milk sugar, will be determined by a titration against alkaline copper (II) sulphate
Introduction In this experiment the identification of milk sugar will be determined by paper chromatography. The estimation of concentration of lactose, which is milk sugar, will be determined by a titration against alkaline copper (II) sulphate. This experiment will also confirm that lactose is milk sugar. The experiment will also estimate how much lactose there is in milk. The concentration of lactose will be determined by the pH of acid produced; when lactose reacts with alkaline copper (II) sulphate, an oxidation reaction occurs and copper (I) sulphate is produced along with carboxylic acid. R-CHO + Cu(II)2+ Cu(I)+ + R-COOH Lactose Copper(II) Copper(I) Carboxylic Acid Milk sugar from milk is separated using dialysed iron. Dialysed iron is used to precipitate the milk proteins. The proteins are removed using filtration, and a colourless solution is obtained. The (milk extract) protein-free filtrate; can then be titrated against Benedict's quantitative reagent (alkaline copper (II) sulphate) to estimate the reducing sugar content of milk. The paper chromatography is a fast way to separating mixtures of compounds with similar components in their structure. The reagent reacts with most sugars to
Adsorption of Isotherms, Physical Chemsitry
Adsorption Isotherms and Surface Area of a solid Introduction: The objective of this experiment is to express the relationship between the volume of gas adsorbed and the equilibrium pressure of the gas over the surface. This can be shown in an adsorption isotherm for nitrogen on a sample of silica powder. To determine the adsorption isotherm the experimental procedure is carried out utilising a vacuum line. Adsorption can be defined as the adhesion of molecules of gas to a surface and is known to be a consequence of surface energy. Adsorption is normally described as isotherms; the amount of adsorbate on the adsorbent as a function of its pressure at a constant temperature. The overall aim of this experiment is to estimate the area occupied by one molecule of gas then subsequently the area covered by the monolayer. As adsorbed molecules can interact either chemically or physically with a surface; the distinction between the two must be defined so that the more convenient process is utilised within this experiment. Chemisorption is adsorption in which covalent bonding is involved. The molecules usually occupy specific adsorption sites on the surface and only a monolayer is formed. Physisorption is adsorption in which the forces involved are intermolecular forces such as Van der Waals. Under standard conditions the molecules from the gas phase can be adsorbed in
The aim of the present study is to determine the distribution coefficient of the given drug in different pH mediums.
INTRODUCTION: Distribution coefficient (D) is the ratio of concentrations of a compound (ionized plus un-ionized) in the two phases of a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium. Hence these coefficients are a measure of differential solubility of the compound between two solvents. Distribution Coefficient, D = [Unionised] (o) / [Unionised] (aq) + [Ionised] (aq) Log D = log10 (Distribution Coefficient) Log D is related to Log P and the pKa by the following equations: for acids for bases A drug's distribution coefficient strongly affects how easily the drug can reach its intended target in the body, how strong an effect it will have once it reaches its target, and how long it will remain in the body in an active form. Lipophilicity (as measured by its Distribution Coefficient) is also a major structural factor that influences the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic behavior of compounds. Thus lipophilicity is a key factor determining in vivo behavior of drugs. Pharmacokinetics: Permeation of physiological membranes (Absorption, distribution) . Plasma protein binding . Volume of distribution Pharmacodynamics: Target recognition . Target affinity . Target specificity The aim of the present study is to determine the distribution coefficient of the given drug in different pH mediums. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Apparatus: 10 ml volumetric flasks, beaker,
Objective: To develop an analytical method and validate it for the given unknown drug sample using UV-Visible Spectrophotometer.
Objective: To develop an analytical method and validate it for the given unknown drug sample using UV-Visible Spectrophotometer. Drug Sample No : Sample A Analytical Instrument : JASCO UV-Visible Spectrophotometer . Solvent System : Methanol : Water ( 7:3 ) Requirements : Distilled water, Methanol, Lactose, Starch, Magnesium stearate, Talc, Volumetric flask(100ml,10ml), Pipette(1ml,10m,5ml), Micropipette, Beaker, micro tips, Cuvettes. Theory: In case of a new drug, we go for analytical method development and validation to decide whether the given analytical method is suitable for the assay of the drug. Analytical method validation is considered as the process of defining the analytical requirements, and confirming that the method under consideration has performance capabilities consistent with the application requirements. In general, the method developed should include studies on specificity, linearity range, accuracy, precision, detection limit, quantization limit, ruggedness and robustness. The iterative process of method development and validation has a direct impact on the quality of the above data. Such validated analytical method for qualitative and quantitative testing of the drug molecule assume greater importance when they are employed to generate quality and safety compliance data during development,
Identifying unknown sample using test of functional group and IR/UV spectra.
Identifying unknown sample using test of functional group and IR/UV spectra Introduction The aim of this lab report is to identify the sample drug 81 from one of the possibilities which are supplied. There are: * Paracetamol * 4-amino salicylic acid * Salicycliamide * Benzocaine acid * 4-hydroxyacetophenone * 3-aminoacetophenone The way to identify the unknown drug sample is using simple physical and chemical tests which are test of functional group and IR/UV spectra. Each of the compound have different functional groups. However, in unknown drugs sample (81) it may contain phenol OH group, carbonyl group C = O, ester group -CO-O-, amide group -CO.NH2 , primary aromatic amine group -NH2 and N-aryl amide group. This predictable test allows to attempt a variety of reactions on an organic compound and determine what functional groups are present in sample drug ( 81). Furthermore, IR spectra which is used to gather information about a compound's structure is particularly useful for identifying the presence of specific functional groups and other properties in the sample. In UV spectra, one will be taken for water and the other will be taken for basic solvent which sodium hydroxide. This is to explain about the wavelength, peaks whether it is bathochromic or hypsochromic shift and whether the sample will ionise or interact with the solvents. Moreover, there is another
