The nature and role of UAM communicative factors
UAM theory proposes that uncertainty and anxiety are directly influenced by the following groups of factors; self-concept, motivation, cognitive capacity, social categorization, situational processes and connections to strangers (Guirdham 1999:211).
Gudykunst (2003:170) states that self-concept refers to the way that communicators perceive themselves. It comprises factors such as the identity that communicators adopt, their level of security with that identity and their overall level of self-esteem. Self-concept exerts an important influence over the way that communicators approach interactions. For example, if communicators are secure with their self-identity then they are likely to be more confident and their level of anxiety will decrease (Guirdham 1999:109-111).
Motivation is, according to Gudykunst (2003:170), about communicators desire to interact with strangers. It covers factors such as communicator needs for inclusion and security, to maintain their self-concept and to minimize ambiguity (Gudykunst 2003:170). We infer that communicators are motivated to interact with strangers to the extent that the strangers respond positively to these needs, by for example enhancing the communicator’s self-concept.
Cognitive complexity is the capacity of communicators to process complex information thereby improving their ability to engage in facilitative behaviors such as empathy (Guirdham 1999:195). It includes factors such as rigidity of group attitudes toward strangers, ability to empathize with and adapt to strangers and the ability to deal with ambiguity (Gudykunst 2003:170). An increase in tolerance for ambiguity will reduce uncertainty and anxiety (Guirdham 1999:210).
Social categorization is, according to Gudykunst (2003:170), about the way that communicators perceive and “categorize” strangers. It deals with factors such as understanding group differences and similarities, having positive expectations of strangers and perceptions of personal similarities with strangers (Gudykunst 2003:170). For example, an increase in perceived similarities will reduce uncertainty and anxiety (Guirdham 1999:210).
Situational processes are objectivistic factors that refer to the impact that different situations have on uncertainty and anxiety (Guirdham 1999:196). It includes factors such as the complexity of interactive scripts, level of formality and cooperation required of interactions, and the support that is provided for dealing with strangers (Gudykunst 2003:170). For example, an increase in the informality of a situation decreases anxiety (Guirdham 1999:209).
Connections to strangers relates to the affinity that communicators have for strangers. It comprises factors such as attraction to strangers, quality and amount of contact with strangers, extent of interdependence with strangers and level of personal intimacy with strangers (Gudykunst 2003:170). For example, an increase in the social networks shared with strangers will reduce levels of uncertainty and anxiety (Guirdham 1999:210).
Interrelationship between communicative factors and the intercultural aspects of UAM
Guirdham (1999:212) states that uncertainty and anxiety are generally very high in intercultural encounters between people that are perceived “as different in salient ways”. According to Guirdham (1999:209-211) the theory identifies four cultural variables that impact on the factors that influence uncertainty and anxiety. They are Hofstede’s power distance, uncertainty avoidance, achievement relationship orientation and individualism-collectivism variables.
The interrelationship between these variables and the factors that influence uncertainty and anxiety are described in another 47 UAM axioms (Guirdham 1999:209). For example, axiom 48 states that increased individualism increases the emphasis that communicators place on their self-concept in communicative encounters (Guirdham 1999:209). Similarly, axiom 65 proposes that increased collectivism increases the affinity that communicators are likely to have for strangers (Guirdham 1999:209). By contrast another axiom suggests that increased uncertainty avoidance may decrease the communicator’s ability to effectively adapt to unfamiliar communicative behaviors (Guirdham 1999:210). Furthermore, axiom 75 proposes that increased power distance may decrease the ability of communicators to interact cooperatively (Guirdham 1999:209). In this way the theory proposes that cultural variables play an important role in influencing levels of uncertainty and anxiety during intercultural encounters.
Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT)
Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) was developed by Giles, Mulac, Bradac and Johnson (1987) who expanded Speech Accommodation Theory. CAT aims at predicting and explaining the adjustments that communicators make to their communicative behavior to increase, maintain or decrease social distance during interactions (Guirdham 1999:214). This movement toward and away from the communicative behavior of others is called accommodation.
The theory incorporates objectivist factors such as situational impacts and subjectivist factors such as the psychological state of communicators to explain the dynamics of the accommodative process. CAT also addresses interpersonal communication considerations in the context of wider intergroup issues that influence intercultural encounters. It achieves this by describing how communicators choose to communicate from the perspective of their personal or group identities, depending on their perceptions of the context of the interaction (Guirdham 1999:216-217).
Concepts and assumptions
The central hypothesis underpinning CAT is that communicators use particular communication strategies to indicate their attitudes toward each other and their respective social groups (Gudykunst 2003:172).
These strategies, according to Guirdham (1999:214), involve either converging toward (convergence) or diverging away from (divergence) the verbal and non-verbal behavior of others. In the case of convergence communicator’s shift their communicative behavior toward others, thereby reducing social distance (Gudykunst 2003:172). Divergence, according to Gudykunst (1999:172), involves communicators accentuating differences in their own communicative behavior to distinguish themselves from others, thereby increasing social distance.
We infer that convergence and divergence is achieved by adjusting communicative traits, styles, actions and language use during the interaction. This movement toward and away from others is motivated and influenced by factors such as the social, psychological and personal characteristics that are present during communicative encounters (Guirdham 1999:214).
The nature and role of CAT communicative factors
CAT describes intercultural communication with reference to four broad factor groupings. These are sociohistorical context, accommodative orientation, immediate situation and future intentions.
Sociohostorical context refers to the context, based on past experience, in which the interaction is embedded. It includes communicator perspectives of intergroup relations and behavioral norms. (Gudykunst 2003:172). For example, positive previous experience with outgroup members is likely to result in accommodative behavior whilst the opposite is true in the case of negative previous experience.
Accommodative orientation is, according to (Gudykunst 2003:172), about the tendency of communicators to respond to outgroup interaction in interpersonal, intergroup or a combination of interpersonal and intergroup terms. This informs communicator decisions to demonstrate accommodative behavior. Gudykunst (2003:172) adds that accommodative orientation is influenced by factors such as communicator social and personal identities, predisposition to outgroups and expectations of the encounter, such as the potential for conflict. For example, Gudykunst (2003:172) states that communicators who identify closely with their ingroup tend to view outgroup encounters from an inter-group perspective. In these situations the tendency is also for these communicators to accentuate divergent ingroup linguistic characteristics (Gudykunst 2003:172).
The immediate situation refers to the role played by factors that arise from the circumstances of the encounter. It includes communicator goals and addressee focus, socialpsychological state, sociolinguistic strategies, behavior and tactics, and labeling and attributions (Gudykunst 2003:173). According to Gudykunst (2003:172-173) these factors are interrelated and cover issues such as communicator motivations and needs, interpersonal versus intergroup orientation, language and topic selection as well as the use of discourse management strategies. Motivational factors such as the need for approval promote convergence whilst motivations such as the desire to maintain a particular status promote divergence (Guirdham 1999:218). Furthermore, Guirdham (1999:217-218), claims that addressee focus affects how communicators converge or diverge. For example, a focus on the addressee’s conversational needs will result in topic sharing (Guirdham 1999:218).
Evaluations and future intentions deal with the perceptions that communicators form of the accommodative behavior of outgroup members (Gudykunst 2003:173-174). For example, well intentioned convergent behavior will be regarded positively and will motivate the communicator in future interactions with members of this particular outgroup (Gudykunst 2003:174).
Interrelationship between communicative factors and the intercultural aspects of CAT
Cultural issues impact accommodation in a variety of ways including communicator predisposition toward accommodation and their competency to accommodate others. Communicator predisposition to accommodative behavior varies depending on cultural perspectives and may be positive or negative. For example, Chick (1995:236) found that Afrikaans English speakers place more emphasis on reducing social distance than South African English speakers. This implies that Afrikaans speakers may be more motivated to optimize convergence opportunities during interaction. This situation can be contrasted with the motivation of dominant cultural groups to demonstrate divergent behavior in relation to subordinate groups, in order to maintain their higher status. Chick (1995:239) theorizes that this may have been the case in interaction between white and black South Africans during the apartheid era.
The motivation to accommodate others may also be undermined by clumsy accommodation behavior. The ability of communicators to accommodate others is dependent on their understanding of the norms and behavioral expectations that are acceptable in other cultures. Chick (1995:231) reinforces this by stating that “because of mismatches in interpretive frames … intercultural encounters are frequently asynchronous”. The result is that a culturally naïve communicator may unwittingly undermine convergence attempts through the selection of inappropriate convergence tactics. This is exacerbated by the fact that frequent intercultural miscommunication can, according to Chick (1995:238), reinforce negative cultural stereotyping which will undermine the communicator’s future intentions to accommodate members of the “offending” group.
Intercultural Adaptation Theory (IAT)
Intercultural Adaptation Theory (IAT) was proposed by Ellingsworth (1983) who approaches the subject from an interpersonal perspective albeit one that incorporates the impact of cultural factors (Gudykunst 2003:174). The theory describes intercultural communication from an objectivist perspective that focuses on the conditions that motivate communicators to adjust their communicative behavior in the interests of achieving mutual understanding.
Concepts and assumptions
Intercultural adaptation refers to the emotional, cognitive and behavioral adjustments that communicators make to their communicative behavior during interaction in new cultural environments (Guirdham 1999:219). The degree to which communicators adapt to new intercultural interactions is, according to Guirdham (1999:219), influenced by their desire to achieve a specific outcome from the encounter.
The onus for adaptation may be apportioned between communicators equally or unequally, depending on their perceptions of their relative power status (Guirdham 1999:219). Thus a communicator with high relative power status will be under less pressure to adapt their behavior than will a lower power counterpart. Guirdham (1999:219-220) adds that if the one communicator’s adaptive behavior is inappropriate then the other communicator will react by attributing the behavior in terms of cultural mindsets. This will, in turn, lead to disruption of further adaptive behavior in the encounter (Guirdham 199:220).
The nature and role of IAT communicative factors
Ellingsworth (1983) defined ten propositions that describe the impact of adaptation on the achievement of communicative objectives and the way that responsibility for adapting is distributed between communicators (Gudykunst 2003:174).
In the case of the impact of adaptation, the theory proposes that increased functional adaptation and willing acceptance of equal responsibility for adaptation will facilitate achievement of objectives (Gudykunst 2003:174). However, adaptive behavior that is non-functional will accentuate cultural barriers that will impede achievement of objectives (Gudykunst 2003:174).
In terms of the onus for adaptation, encounters that require co-operation will result in equal responsibility for adapting (Gudykunst 2003:174). On the other hand if situational factors or the distribution of power favor one communicator then the onus to adapt will fall on the other communicator (Gudykunst 2003:174). Finally, the theory proposes that the more adaptive behavior a communicator engages in the more their own cultural beliefs will change (Gudykunst 2003:174).
Interrelationship between communicative factors and the intercultural aspects of IAT
Cultural factors exert considerable influence over the balance of power in intercultural interaction, communicator attempts to demonstrate adaptive behavior and the reactions of other communicators to those attempts.
The balance of power is directly influenced by issues such as the linguistic supremacy referred to by Alim (2005:195). He cites the circumstance in which white teachers refuse to adapt their standard English usage to the black English of their students, thereby placing the onus for adaptation on the students. Alim (2005:195) captures the power advantage enjoyed by white English speakers in this observation by a black speaker: “If you livin in the White man’s world, you gotta play by the White man’s rules.”
Communicator attempts to adapt behavior, as well as perceptions of such attempts are susceptible to the negative influence of culturally based pre-conceptions and stereotypes. Guirdham’s (1999:219-220) description of a European negotiator adopting stereotypical Chinese stonewalling tactics with a person from China who perceives this to be devious Western behavior, is a good example of the negative intercultural impact of stereotyping.
Network Analysis theory
Network analysis is an objectivist theory that explains the beliefs and behaviors of people by focusing on the influence exerted by their social relationships with others, rather than on their personal beliefs (Gudykunst 2003:178). In Gudykunst (2003:179) Kim reinforces the intergroup orientation of Network theory when she states that group members rely on other network members “for perceiving and interpreting various attributes and actions of others”.
Concepts and assumptions
Network analysis is underpinned by the premise that individuals build and participate in social networks that influence their attitudes, values and behavior (Guirdham 1999:222). According to Guirdham (1999:223), individual networks originate in economic, manipulative and communication links that are sustained by shared principles of reciprocity and exchange. The theory examines behavior with reference to the social relations that govern interconnections between individuals, as well as the individual’s relative position in the network (Guirdham 1999:222).
In the context of intercultural communication network analysis focuses on the role of interpersonal networks in facilitating outgroup communicative competence and immigrant acculturation (Gudykunst 2003:179-180). The remainder of this discussion will deal with Kim’s (1986) proposition that outgroup communicative competence of personal networks is enhanced by the presence of outgroup members with outgroup ties (Gudykunst 2003:178).
The nature and role of communicative factors in network analysis theory
Kim’s (1986) perspective of network analysis is guided by three theorems (Gudykunst 2003:179). The first theorem states that the greater the heterogeneity of a personal network, then the better will be that networks outgroup communication competence (Gudykunst 2003:179). The second theorem proposes that outgroup communication competence improves according to the extent that outgroup members occupy central positions in the network (Gudykunst 2003:179). Finally, the third theorem holds that outgroup communicative competence improves to the extent that network members have frequent contact with outgroup members (Gudykunst 2003:179).
Interrelationship between communicative factors and the intercultural aspects of network analysis theory
Kim’s (1986) perspective of networks and outgroup communicative competence assumes that the greater the exposure that individuals have to other cultures through their networks, the better their ability to communicate with those cultures. Such exposure is facilitated by the meaningful presence, influence and outgroup connections of network members with different cultural backgrounds.
Thus in the South African context a white English speaking network’s communicative competence with black Xhosa speaking South Africans will improve, to the extent that the network involves a critical mass of influential black Xhosa members who have links to Xhosa networks.
Conclusion
This assignment has examined four of the primary theories of intercultural communication. Whilst the individual theories emphasize different aspects of intercultural communication, their combined insights contribute toward an integrated understanding of the factors that impact on the effectiveness of intercultural communicators. [2659 words]
Bibliography
Alim, H.S. 2005. Hearing what’s not said and missing what is said: Black language in white public space. In S.F Kiesling and C.B. Paulston (eds). 2005. Intercultural discourse and communication: 180-197. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Chick, J.K. 1995. Interactional sociolinguistics and intercultural communication in South Africa. In R. Mesthrie (ed). 1995. Language and social history. Studies in South African sociolinguistics: 230-241. Claremont, S.A.: David Philip Publishers.
Gudykunst, W.B. 2003. Intercultural communication theories. In W.B. Gudykunst (ed). Cross-cultural and intercultural communication: 167-189. London: Sage Publications.
Guirdham, M. 1999. Communicating across cultures. New York: Palgrave. (pp. 192-236)
Appendix A: Assignment Outline