Can a man ever truly be a feminist ?

Masculinists argue that many feminist approaches have not been offset through the eradication of many conventional female 'privileges', and that their aim should be for them to seek empowerment through the revitalisation of their masculinity. This argument coincides with many religious groups such as the Muscular Christianity movement.  

The campaign largely acquired most of its success from influencing legal reform in family law, especially surrounding child custody cases. Activists claim that the American legal system is prejudiced against fathers in custody cases as mothers are typically seen as the primary caregivers and thus would be more competent single parents. Another argument is that the financial burden of the breadwinner role has made it more difficult for fathers to be present in raising children; this is because court decisions seldom cater for this obstacle.

 

Some groups, an example being the National Coalition for Free Men (NCFM), have actively attempted to consider how gender discrimination may also affect men. For example, this group believes that cause for the issue of discrimination is custody rights is because the common stereotype that women are naturally more nurturing and overall more skilled caregivers than men. Additionally, in the idea that women are less reprehensible than men. A lot of research has shown women are often treated more favourably within the judicial system even if for the same offences for the same crimes that men have committed. Therefore, groups such as NCFM advocate resources, awareness, support, and opportunities for discussion of these issues.

Despite all of this authors such as feminist and social activist Bell Hook agree that men's liberation and rights are vital in achieving full gender equality through feminism. This is evidenced in her book 'Feminism is for Everybody' in which she argues that feminism strives to dismantle sexism particularly since it is not only detrimental to women but also men.

Ambivalent sexism is a theory which proposes that a key factor of sexism is ‘the hegemonic heterosexual ideal’. Heterosexual hostility refers to women being viewed as sex objects, while instilling a fear of female sexual power within women, whereas intimate heterosexuality romanticises this objectification and asserts that without women are less ‘valuable’.The theory therefore provides a fairly broad assessment of sexism. However research has worked to  narrow down this definition by assessing real life environments such as workplaces. (Glick and Fiske)

Research into male attitudes towards women has defined two definitions of sexism are provided in a study by Glick and Fiske (1996): Within this study ambivalent sexism is introduced, which in this case involves two different of attitudes when dealing with women: hostile sexism, and benevolent sexism. The first is closer to that of classic gender prejudice in that it is an aggressive approach to women, with them often being viewed as seeking to control men through feminist ideologyand even sex; with the latter being the idea that women are destined to assume roles as delicate, gentle and nurturing caregivers (or, as defined in this study, ' intimacy-seeking' and 'prosocial'.)

The study goes onto explain that often there are two reactions to these so-called characteristics of women. The first is dominant paternalism which is the theory that men should possess full control over women, the second being protective paternalism. This is the belief that men always work to protect women from the threats which exploit their vulnerability.

Ambivalent sexism was measured with a questionnaire (the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory). This test was later put under meticulous qualitative content analysis in order to determine the true scope of the effects of sexism.  Some examples of questions that were used to measure hostile sexism are “Once a man commits, she puts him on a tight leash” and “Feminists are not seeking more power than men“. Examples of questions which were used to assess benevolent sexism include “A good woman should be set on a pedestal“, “Women have a quality of purity few men possess“, and “Men are incomplete without women“.  

The findings were: benevolent and hostile sexism were both detected, however there was also a correlation between the two, suggesting that those who have hostile sexist attitudes tend to also adopt benevolent ones. The effects of ambivalent sexism are vast but this research has shown that ambivalent sexism is largely within the workplace. Hostile sexism has been associated with negative attitudes towards women. A common example is the resistance to female candidates up for managerial positions within companies, thus perpetuating the male/female hierarchy; whereas, many of their male counterparts are praised for their aspirations for higher recommendations, female candidates often find themselves overlooked for the same role. There is also evidence for  more tolerance of sexist comments within the workplace such as a sexist jokes, this also implies that sexist humour does in fact have ecological implications, meaning it is easily generaliseable to most people, particularly in the case of those who are hostilely sexist.

Benevolent sexism, on the other hand, can be applied in many ways to the real world. In the same way as hostile sexism, it has also been linked to negative attitudes towards women in workplace environments, as women are seen to be neglecting their more traditional roles as primary caregivers to their children. As well as this systematic disenfranchisement of women, the impact of benevolent sexism even impacts on sociological issues such as women abandoning their less conventional career aspirations for more conventional roles, such as those they feel would be seen as more acceptable by men. The study also found that when experiencing benevolent sexism, women performed worse in several cognitive assessments , which may indicate that  benevolent sexism further reinforces a vicious circle which allows women to fail often more in their achievements.

Although the issues of hostile sexism are made very obvious, and largely seen as unacceptable in society, there are also major issues with benevolent sexism, in spite of  it seeming less harmful than the fore. It in fact, distributes the notion that women are objects of sexual gratification for men or on the other hand that they are destined only for a life of docility and motherhood, and as such it can have major consequences for the equality of women. This drastic reduction of a woman’s value is therefore what leads to the opinion that a woman simply isn’t worth equality, for many men this false perception of women is why it can be argued that they can never be a feminist.

 

Masculism

Masculism is often seen as the opposite movement to feminism. Many feminists react to the types of Masculism in different ways. Those who promote gender equality are generally seen as equivalent to male feminists. However, it is more often the case that many of the beliefs surrounding Masculism point to its perceived misogynistic connotations.  Most modern feminists largely opine that is the attempt of men for further dominance and superiority over women, they also believe it is merely a covert attempt to continue the subjugation of women.

However activists such as Ferrell Christensen argue that if both feminism and Masculism are of the belief that both men and women equally and systematically experience prejudice and discrimination there should be no conflict between the two. He also believes that they should work together to eradicate discrimination against both sexes. In reality, however, the case is often that on both sides there exist people who believe their sex is more discriminated than the other; thus leading to a lack progress in the arena of gender equality.

Most masculinists contend that separate roles for the sexes are natural. This is mirrored in society with specific roles on labour that differ between genders,  prominent example is the continued lack of female soldiers on the front line, which links back to the perceived fragility of women. Moreover, the principle of natural differences in gender differences perpetuates inequality and lets the dominant continue, confident in the belief that they are different and therefore superior. Masculism has also, in part, adopted many assertions made by evolutionary psychology which states that adjustments made in prehistory lead to permanent changes in human psyche that still present themselves in the present day, which makes it impossible to adopt contemporary gender roles with equality at the forefront.

Criticism has also come in light of some masculinists’ explicit affiliation with the anti-feminist movements. Research has also conveyed that online, even more moderate feminists are condemned by masculists. Although masculists criticise feminist for ‘destructive’ demonstrations feminism, it has been evidenced that masculists activism isn’t much more peaceful in general with examples as extreme as law suits against prominent feminists A particularly violent example is the bombing (as well as bomb threats within the UK) of a courthouse in Australia in response to custody battles in which they believed father’s rights were not fully considered. The slashing of tyres has also been common particularly when coupled with death threats against prominent figures in the media and politics. In response more organised groups within the movement have attempted to increase public awareness surrounding these incidents stating that it is unclear whether it is the work of extremist individuals or what they deem real ‘masculists’.

 

Feminist Literature  

The majority of feminist literature being written by women is just one example of the ridge between men and feminism.  It is also notable that any literature surrounding feminism by men is often critical of it. The early 1960s saw writer such as Betty Frieden who wrote 'The Feminine Mystique' (1963) which is widely regarded as triggering so-called 'Second Wave Feminism' in the United States . In chapter two Frieden asserts that in many women's magazines the editorial responsibilities are often left to men, this lead to sharp spike in articles and stories that displayed women as either despondent housewives or unhappy career women, this in turn created what she called “the feminine mystique" which is the notion that women were satisfied with playing the role of the doting wife and mother. She does however note this contrasts similar publication in the 1930s. At this time women's magazines generally highlighted self-assured and socially autonomous heroines, many of whom had career. An explanation for the change in presentation of women is a possible reaction to the increased threat (or perceived threat) of feminism, thus an attempt to protect the hierarchy that existed in 1960s US.

Another notable feminist author is Judith Butler who wrote 'Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity' (1989) in the late eighties. In the book Butler examines one of the more fundamental suggestions of feminism as a theory, essentially the assumption that there exists an identity and that it must be represented within the context of language and politics. In Butler's estimation, even the word 'woman' (with its inherent roots being from the word 'man') can have negative connotations that are detrimental to the cause. She believes that identity itself is defined by a slew of categories such as sexuality, class, and ethnicity. Therefore, Butler seeks to abandon the politics of identity as an alternative she aims to promote a new version of feminism in which the idea of identity and gender is scrutinized closely.  

By the early nineties Feminist literature had evolved beyond its initial tentative strikes at the so called 'patriarchy'. 'Backlash: The Undeclared War against American Women' was written by Susan Faludi who argues that the emergence of media has accelerated the 'backlash' to the feminist movement. She believes that this backlash instigated the women's liberation movement in the late eighties. Throughout the book Faludi presents evidence for an anti-feminist approach in the portrayal of women within Hollywood in the eighties; for instance the method used in television was that the roles for female actors appeared to change drastically as a response to feminism. Within the fashion industry this trend was mirrored, models swapped the business suits of the seventies for exploitative and impractical lingerie in the eighties. This decade also saw the prevalence and popularity of cosmetics, makeup and cosmetic surgery.  Feminist literature has also crossed cultural lines with pieces such as 'And Who Will Make the Chapatis?' by Bishakha Datta, an Indian author and filmmaker.  

 

The lack of male authors in this area indicates the resistance and scepticism towards male feminists within the feminist community.

Integration (HeforShe)

 HeForShe is a campaign that strives for solidarity between the sexes in the journey for gender equality and it was founded by a group female UN members. Ultimately it works to afford men and boys the same voice as women within the feminist arena when debating equality. The biggest tool at the disposal of this campaign has been social media and the internet. On its website there is a global locator which regularly uploads the number of men and boys who pledged their support for the campaign, with the goal currently at one million by summer 2015. This an extremely positive approaches to gender equality as it seems the biggest hindrance to it has been the hostility between the sexes. On the website plans for social justice, civil society, and UN agencies can be found, making it much easier for people to feel they are making a direct and immediate impact regarding the betterment of society.  This campaign has been very successful in engaging the youth or as they are commonly dubbed ‘the internet generation’. Elizabeth Nyamayaro, a member of the UN said “Initially we wanted to be asking, ‘Do men care about gender equality?’ and the  huge swathes of support have shown that they do’’.  International Women’s Day 2015, was a prominent day for the campaign, with Emma Watson hosting a He for She Facebook stream in which she answered questions about it and overall created an intimate rapport with the supporters, taking away the impersonality of past campaigns. Critics have said that the best aspect was that she prompted discussion surrounding topics from why equal pay should not be threatening to men to chivalry and male emotionality versus masculinity.

Men and Feminism

The question therefore remains; can a man ever truly be a feminist?  According to Brian Klocke states that while, men can be anti-sexist and agree with feminism, men cannot be ‘feminist’ as such. Within a patriarchal society, men are unable to fully separate themselves from the power and privileges that are afforded them.

An explicit comparison can be made between male pro-feminists and white anti-racism activists. In the same way that men cannot altogether relinquish their positions in society, whites can’t do the same. However it is obvious that to be a feminist is not destined be a merely a disheartened woman but to engage in political activism in order to actively try change the situation, again, here a parallel can be drawn to the black nationalists who must also be socially conscious to achieve change.

 The vast majority of feminists also agree that sexism rigidly defines roles for men in the same way as women. However, although sexism affects women in a more negative way than men it also impacts women to varying degrees. Whereas, some women adopt sexist beliefs and submissive behaviours to larger extent and refuse embrace feminism, others are more socially aware and fully of the positive implications it can have and choose to feminism.

Feminism may actually have a greater effect on women as they are directly affected by the seeming injustices and oppression as a result of patriarchal values within society, and these experiences make them more likely to identify the potentially positive implications it could have for them. On the other hand, men, are less likely to recognise their ‘gender privilege’ in these matters, and may even have experiences where they exercised ‘oppressive’ behaviours or failed to stop another man from doing so. Regardless, it can be argued that true feminism isn’t about the everyday personal experiences with gender inequality. Rather how both men and women can change to scrutinise the structure of sex relations and eradicate sexism by turning their beliefs about inequality into actions which tackle it.

Regrettably, however, some groups within the men’s movement appear to be less concerned with eliminating the patriarchy and more focused on maintenance of what the author, bell hooks, would call   “a kind of masculinity that can only be safely expressed within patriarchal boundaries.”  She also opines that the most worrying part of the present day men’s movement, especially within popular culture, is the ‘depoliticisation’ of the struggle abolishes sexism and the replacing it with a focus on the personal struggle towards self-actualisation. Consequently this makes it appear as though sexism is no longer a major issue and by default discredits the relevancy of feminism. Hooks instead proposes that the men’s movement should not be detached from the women’s movement but instead should develop to integrate under the larger feminist movement. Thus putting an end to the historical dominance of men through the subjugation of women.

Paul Smith, a co author of the book ‘Men in Feminism’ recently argued that although men cannot be ‘in’ feminism, they can be nearby by offering support without dominating the conversation. He asserts however, that this cannot happen until men change their attitudes towards other men as well as women, by choosing not to reinforce sexist attitudes towards either sex. This could mean that ‘menists’support women in feminism by allowing themselves to adopt feminist theory and in turn ending the patriarchy, which in turn works as a catalyst to liberate both genders from their restrictive, albeit, traditional  roles.

The language of feminist theory

Any functional theory which aims to achieve social change should offer something for all parts of society. Theories which use elitist and alienating language will often not be easily accessible certain sub-groups of society, particularly those most in need of social justice. Therefore in order to reach those groups, a good ideology must contain several levels of language in order to communicate the message effectively. An example being that radical feminist often take an elitist stance on feminist theory by only making it possible for women to be involved with it, effectively making any male involvement impossible. It is therefore the responsibility of female feminists to allow for men to understand the language of the theory but also that of men to learn women’s text, and commit to understanding the language of the theory, in order to reach the goal of gender equality.

Feminist authors but must also allow for a learning of socio-political experience from a feminist perspective. According to Allison Jagger, “men should also consult with feminist women when writing about feminist theory”.  Jaggar also suggests that men must also offer support for more feminist authorship in order to legitimise feminism to both male and female critics. In particular, men must attempt to “engage with feminist theory and practice”.

In my estimation, the only way to achieve complete gender equality is through the full cooperation of both sexes. Women must work to allow men to be part of the conversation, and for men to engage with feminism without, firstly, dominating the dialogue and secondly, resisting the threatening perception many of them have about women. Despite this, I do agree with many, that although men can never truly be feminists, they are able to assist the struggle in eliminating the patriarchy.  

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