Durkheim also argues that the process of change is so rapid and intense that the moral standards which were provided by religion are broken down and individuals can start feeling aimless with no purpose in their lives – a term coined as ‘anomie’ by Durkheim.
Conflict Theory
The most famous conflict theory is that of Marx.
In common with functionalism he viewed society as a system and human behaviour as a response to that system but that is where the similarities end. Where functionalists saw society operating through consensus, Marx believed society to be made up of two major classes and believed it to operated mainly through class conflict i.e. the class that own ‘the means of production’ (the most powerful) v the class that has to sell its labour in order to make a living (the least powerful). He saw individuals as having no power and found them only to be identifiable by the membership of their class.
Members of this society may be unaware of the conflict of interests and may not be aware that they are being exploited. This can help to maintain order as people won’t rebel if they don’t realize an injustice is being done.
When people realise an injustice is being committed they may express themselves in a number of ways such as criminal behaviour, political protest or industrial action (‘Scotrail’ train drivers striking for a better pay deal).
Socialisation - Culture
Before we look at the links between culture and socialisation we will first consider the differences between culture and society.
A society can be termed as a comprehensive social grouping of people with something in common e.g. industrial society, unemployed society etc. We can be members of different societies e.g. employed, unemployed, family etc.
Culture refers to the behaviour of members of these societies which enable them to exist in their societies. The behaviour is learned i.e. not genetically acquired and by behaving the way we do it is also shared with other members and passed on from generation from generation.
As a father, how I act/ behave towards my child is party based on experiences I shared with my own father. I have also observed the interaction between father/child in other family circumstances and unconsciously ‘learned’ paternal skills.
The same can be said of a police officer. The behaviour I use may be different to the behaviour I use as a father but it is relevant to the ‘police society’. Much of the culture of police officers is learned via tutor cops (passed on from generation to generation) and much of it is gained by shared experiences/training.
Socialisation is not about our cultures as such but how we acquire our culture, how we acquire the social characteristics considered appropriate in our society.
Socialisation – Values
Values form an important part of the culture of society. The ‘values’ of a society is something that a society holds dear to it; something that a society believes is worth fighting for or, indeed dying for.
During the Roman era Christians held their beliefs of Christ dear to them, so much so that many of them lost their lives in the amphitheatre as they wouldn’t renounce their beliefs.
Values often vary greatly from society to society i.e. what is a value to one society is not necessarily a value to another.
Norms
Norms refers to the ways in which we behave/conduct ourselves in order to live our lives in the appropriate way required of us by our societies. Norms, like culture are learned and shared.
Whilst at Tulliallan, when undertaking my initial police training I was introduced to a whole new society which I had never been a member of. Although I was now a member I still had to learn the ‘norms’ required of this society i.e. how to address my superiors, a whole new language- ‘police talk’ for report writing etc.
As humans we sometimes need norms to guide and direct us as they define acceptable and appropriate behaviour.
Social Order
As previously mentioned, in the course of our lives we are members of different societies. Within these societies we hold statuses i.e. my occupational status is that of a police officer whereas my family status is that of a father, husband and a son. In each of these positions I am expected to behave in a different manner i.e. each position requires that I play out a different ‘role’ – a collection of norms defining how the part should be played.
Roles are generally performed in relation to another person’s role, e.g. as a police officer, how I carry out my duties often depends on how the person I am dealing with acts. If a prisoner struggles and fights whilst being arrested I will choose to handcuff him to the rear for extra safety whereas, if he is a compliant prisoner I may choose to handcuff him to the front.
You learn how to play your ‘role’ is gained by watching others and taking advice.
Effects of Non Socialisation
We have looked at culture/values/norms/social order and the part they play in the socialisation process.
Let us now consider what would happen if we weren’t socialised at all.
There are many sociologists that believe that the process of socialisation ‘makes us human’ and is the only thing that distinguishes us from the animals.
There’s many a time I’ve heard a witness say the common phrase ‘he was behaving like an animal’.
Is this because the criminal has been a product of very poor socialisation and his actions are verging towards those of an animal as opposed to human?
There are numerous cases of children found in the wild having presumably been reared by animals. The children were found to have ‘animal like’ instincts and were found to behave like animals. The children are believed to have had no primary socialisation (the basic and most fundamental stage in the socialisation process).
Although the behaviour of these children would tend to show the results of non socialisation, how are we to know that they were not mentally disturbed and did not already behave in this manner prior to being abandoned?
To carry out an experiment into the effects of non socialisation under the correct conditions we would have to take a child from the mother at birth and remove it from all human contact through the first few years of its life. This would be deemed a ‘too extreme’ course of action.
One observation into the effects of non socialisation which has come close to meeting the required conditions was made of a child by the name of Isabelle who spent most of the first six years of her life in a darkened room with a deaf mute mother:-
‘Her behaviour towards strangers, especially men, was almost of a wild animal, manifesting much fear and hostility. In lieu of speech she made only a strange croaking sound. In many ways she acted like an infant. At first it was even hard to tell whether or not she could hear, so unused were her senses. Many of her actions resembled those of deaf children.’ (Davis, 1970)
After two years of rehabilitation Isabelle covered the stages of learning which would normally take six years tending to show that her actions were due to non socialisation and not a result of any personal inadequacies.
Predicting Behaviour
In our Western society we agree about appropriate behaviour, we all learn the same rules that constitute our culture. Because of this we can ‘predict’ to a certain extent the actions of others within our society, e.g. if you were to ask a policeman for directions the predicted behaviour would be for him to help you as opposed to him laughing at you and walking away – along with the status of ‘police officer’ comes the expected behaviour of that person i.e. their ‘role’.
In many ways it is harder to predict the behaviour of criminals/deviants. The fact that they carry out criminal acts would suggest that they behave inappropriately and don’t conform to the general rules of society – this can lead to unpredictable behaviour.
Sanctions
What stops me from assaulting a prisoner who has insulted me? What stops me from stealing from my work colleagues when I’m a bit skint at the end of the month? Is it merely because as a member of a Western civilisation I am socialised and conform to rules of my society? Is what I have learned and what I accept as appropriate behaviour enough to prevent me behaving in a wholly unacceptable manner?
These are good enough reasons for behaving the way I do, but they are not the only reasons.
All of society’s rules have sanctions backing them up, be it legal or informal sanctions. E.g. I may be imprisoned for assaulting a prisoner – this is a legal sanction. If I steal from a colleague and anyone finds out I will be talked about behind my back, ridiculed and ostracised from the rest of the shift – informal sanction.
In many ways informal sanctions can be more effective than formal ones. It is important for us to feel accepted, to feel part of the group. The thought of being humiliated and ostracised from those people we know can have a greater an effect on keeping us to the straight and narrow than any legal sanctions could.
Deviance
Let us consider two definitions of the term ‘deviance’:-
“Deviance may be considered as banned or controlled behaviour which is likely to attract punishment or disapproval” (Downs and Rock, 1988)
“Deviance is behaviour that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society” (Wickman, 1991)
As individuals we behave in an appropriate manner to make society work, we are guided by social rules – we are socialised. When our actions tend to oppose that which we know is right, i.e. they would be considered by others as wrongful behaviour or they violate the standards of conduct in our society then what we are doing can be termed as an act of ‘deviance’.
Agencies of Social Control
From where do we learn what is socially right or wrong? From where do we acquire our beliefs?
From an early age we are influenced by others. It is these influences that mould us, that make us the people we are. We are socialised by the influence of institutions, i.e. ‘agencies of social control’.
Let us look at some of the agencies of social control:-
The Family
The primary agent of social control. It becomes harder for a person to become socialised if the differences between right and wrong are not instilled in that person at this very early stage of his/her life.
The School
The next important agent after the family. Teachers ‘act’ as parents in that they teach their pupils what is morally right and wrong. If a child has not learned this from his family then there is still a chance for him/her to learn at this stage.
As a police officer I find that you have to try not to be cynical when dealing with children from ‘scummy’ families. It is very easy to ‘tar’ a child of a ‘scummy’ family with the same brush as the rest of the family. A teacher can have an immense influence on a child, especially if that child has not received the proper love and attention from his/her family.
Religion
Religion used to play a very important part in teaching people morals/influencing people’s behaviour. As society changed from rural to urban the impact of religion has lessened somewhat.
