Critically examine the idea of the stages of development and its impact on professional practice with reference to: infancy and childhood.

Authors Avatar

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Critically examine the idea of ‘the stages of development’ and its impact on professional practice with reference to: infancy and childhood.

The idea of the ‘stages of development’ stems mainly from the work of developmental psychologists such as Piaget, Vygotsky and Freud, all who claim that development takes place in a series of distinct stages which end following adolescence. Runyan (1978, cited in Sugarman, 1986:2), in line with Erikson, takes this one step further and considers development to be a phenomenon which spans the whole of the life course, defining ‘life course’ as:

                 the sequence of events and experiences in a life from birth until

                death, and the chain of personal states and encountered situations

                which influence, and are influenced by this sequence of events.

The importance of both the person and the environment and their interaction is emphasised here and, unlike some earlier research, this definition does not presume irreversibility. Life span development, however, cannot be explained in terms of a single theory, and although guided by theory, it is presumed to be a ‘…general perspective or orientation encompassing some generally agreed views’ (Sugarman, 1986:2).  

Theories of childhood are hugely dominant within, and inform, education, social work practice, health, and the media. However, the current dominant approach to understanding early socio-emotional and personality development is attachment theory (Thompson, 2000).  The psychiatrist, John Bowlby, originally formulated the concept of attachment theory and asserted that attachments to others are instinctive or ‘innate’, and are important throughout the life span (Kagan, 1984). This study will examine the concept of attachment, its impact on the development of the infant and the relevance of good early attachments for later healthy functioning. Encompassed within this will be an examination of the nature of resilience and individual differences in attachment behaviours. The contribution of attachment theory within professional practice will also be considered throughout, along with critical analyses from feminist, Eurocentric and social constructionist perspectives. The social construction of both childhood and motherhood became pivotal when Bowlby (1953, cited in Cardwell et al., 2003:59) stated that ‘mother-love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health’.  Bowlby has often been criticised for this over-emphasis on the importance of the mother (eg. Burman, 2008), and this specific criticism will also be considered both in light of the times during which Bowlby was working and in relation to mothers who may not be emotionally available, for reasons of depression, stress or otherwise (‘maternal deprivation’).

Bowlby stated that:

                 attachment as a relationship is supported by attachment behaviours

                 that result in a person attaining or maintaining proximity to some

                 other clearly identified individual, who is conceived as better able to

                 cope with the world. It is most obvious whenever the person is                               frightened, fatigued or sick, and is assuaged by comforting and                                 caregiving

(1988:27)

Perhaps more simplistically, Cardwell et al (2003:42) define attachment as:

                  …when you become attached to someone, it means you

               have formed a special bond or relationship with that person,

               and they with you.

They emphasise the importance of attachments throughout life but particularly during infancy, and how the loss of or lack of these attachments can have a negative impact on childhood development. In contrast to Bowlby’s definition however, this definition does not assume any issues of power, control or coping. Rather they describe a ‘special bond’ which can be made between any two individuals and which is mutually beneficial.  Security is a key element within attachment theory, a claim being that insensitive caregiving is reflected in infants developing insecure attachments to their caregiver and thus consequently viewing others as unavailable and untrustworthy. This then arguably has a negative effect on self-worth and can permanently affect vulnerability in future relationships (Berlin et al, 1995).  Howe (1995:12) claims that:

                    if a child receives inconsistent and erratic parental responses

                    when he or she experiences anxiety, that child will fail to develop

                    effective strategies for dealing with anxiety on future occasions.

Whilst insecure patterns of attachment are perhaps likely to lower resilience and produce more vulnerability, a secure pattern of attachment during infancy is regarded as the attachment style producing the best outcome, resulting in more flexible and adaptable coping strategies spanning a wider range of environments (Parkes, Stevenson-Hinde & Marris, 1991). However there is another school of thought which takes the view that too much emphasis is placed on the attachment bond during infancy and argues that more attention should be paid to other processes which influence relationships (eg. Aldgate and Jones, 2006).

Attachment theory resonates strongly with the infancy stage of Erikson’s psycho-social theory of human development.  Here, the focus is on the infant’s development of either ‘trust’ or ‘mistrust’ dependent on the caregiver’s reliability in meeting physical and emotional needs.  Howe et al., (1999) equate securely attached children’s ‘internal working models’ as viewing others as dependable and emotionally available with Erikson’s notion of having ‘basic trust’ in their caregiver. It is arguable therefore how the recommendations of some health visitors, midwives, child care experts and social workers who advocate leaving a child to cry rather than responding immediately to every need, fit in with this concept of trust in their caregiver, and therefore a balance must be found.

The ‘Strange Situation’ experiment is believed to reflect individual differences in the quality of early parental caregiving and is the most widely used form of measurement in attachment research (Lamb, 1987).  Ainsworth et al (1978, cited in Woods, 1997) found two types of attachment, namely ‘secure’ and ‘insecure’.  A secure attachment is the optimal form for healthy emotional and social development.  Here the infant displays ‘stranger anxiety’ and is distressed on separation from their caregiver but easily comforted, due to confidence in the return of the caregiver, showing joy on reunion. This infant would be confident to explore the environment whilst the caregiver acts as a safe base.  

On the other hand, the insecurely attached infant shows disturbed behaviour both on separation and reunion.  This category has been split into ‘resistant-insecure’, whereby distress is displayed on separation and reunion is resisted, and ‘avoidant-insecure’, whereby the infant is indifferent on separation and avoids contact on reunion.  It has been argued that this type of attachment can lead to unsuccessful relationships in later life with peers, partners and the infant’s own children (eg. Fonagy et al., 1991, cited in Burman, 2008).  However, it must be noted that this inter-generational attachment is not entirely understood.  Main and Solomon (1991, cited in Howe, 1995), later added the category of ‘disorganised’ attachment, which includes elements of inconsistence, confusion and indecision on the part of the infant.

Join now!

Schaffer and Emerson (1964, cited in Cardwell et al., 2003) found that the first attachment is generally made at between 6-8 months of age, when the infant demonstrates separation anxiety, with stranger anxiety being displayed approximately one month later.  This links in with Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory and notion of ‘object permanence’, as it appears that when the infant becomes aware that they are separate to their caregiver, they begin to display anxiety when that person goes out of sight.  However, Schaffer and Emerson (ibid.) argue against the notion of ‘monotropy’ (Bowlby, 1969, cited in Woodhead et al.,1991) stating ...

This is a preview of the whole essay