The issue of gender as an influencing factor varies considerably and there are no common gender stereotypical characteristics of the ways in which boys and girls deal with their experiences. According to Lupton and Gillespie (1994) and Hester et al (2000) the impact on black children is likely to be exacerbated by additional issues such as, threats of abduction abroad and being asked inappropriately to be asked to act as interpreters. There has been little research on how children’s disability may influence the impact of domestic violence, despite the fact that attacks on women during pregnancy may have been a contributing factor in relation to the disability. Kelly (1992, cited in Hester et al (2000)), has documented how “both physical and learning disabilities can be caused by direct and indirect abuse within the context of domestic violence” (p 56). Researchers have also linked the trauma of witnessing and experiencing domestic violence in children with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a type of enduring anxiety disorder following exposure of a traumatic event.
For some children the physical and emotional effects of domestic violence on their mother can have a negative impact on the parenting they receive including the quality of their relationships. Holden and Ritchie (1991, cited in Hester et al (2000)) carried out a study of the impact of domestic violence in parenting capacity and found that children living with domestic violence may receive inconsistent parenting. In some cases the abuse prevented women from maintaining standards of care and/or led them to act in more punitive ways towards the children in the presence of their partners. The National Children’s Homes (NCH) completed a study in 1994 entitled ‘The Hidden Victims’ (Abrahams, 1994, cited in Hester et al (2000)) in which they described some of the effects of domestic violence on parenting as:
“ losing self-confidence as mothers, being emotionally drained with little to give to the children, taking out their frustrations on the children, and experiencing an emotional distance between themselves and their children” (p 23). According to Mullender and Morley (1994), domestic violence can have “profound and far-reaching effects on women’s feelings and behaviour towards their children” (p 52).
One specific dimension of parenting capacity is ‘emotional warmth’ which includes ensuring the child’s relationships with significant adults are secure, stable and affectionate, which are appropriately sensitivity and responsiveness to the child’s needs. Theoretically known as ‘attachment’, this is considered a key early developmental stage, taking place during the first year of life, which remains centrally important in adult life. It is believed that a lack of integration of an early secure attachment relationship can lead to long term cognitive, emotional and social difficulties during later childhood and adult life (Howarth, 2000). According to Howarth (2000), many children who have experienced abuse and/or neglect demonstrate insecure attachment patterns. Domestic violence may affect the ability of parents to maintain a consistent and predictable physical presence in relation to their children (Howarth, 2000). Howarth (2000) further states that infants living with domestic violence are less likely to have bodily contact with their parents and such parent’s have a tendency to be insensitive to the infant’s signals. Domestic violence is also associated with high levels of child criticism and rejection.
Parenting capacity generally, and attachment particularly, needs to be seen in the context of abuse and manipulation experienced by women whereby children may have been conceived as a result of rape, pregnancy may have been used as a controlling strategy, children have been encouraged to side with the abusive man or have been drawn into the abuse of their mother. The type of parenting a child receives from its mother may also be affected by additional factors in the context of domestic violence such as physical injury, depression, drug and alcohol use and separation due to mother leaving or child running away. Additionally, violent and abusive father figures have been found to be more irritable, less physically affectionate, and use more negative control techniques such as physical punishment, when undertaking the primary carers role (Hester et al, 2000).
We know that when a woman is being abused not only is her parenting capacity and her relationships with her children likely to be affected; there is also a high probability that her children may be abused. There is an increasing body of evidence that highlights the links between domestic violence and child abuse (Fantuzzo et al 1997, cited in Women’s Aid (2002). Hughes et al (1989, cited in Women’s Aid (2002)) found that domestic violence and child abuse occur together in 45-70% of cases; therefore domestic violence is now perceived to be an important indicator of risk of harm to children, with the male typically also the child’s abuser. In some circumstances women have used violence themselves but this is usually to pre-empt harsher treatment from their partner (Mullender and Morley, 1994, Hester et al, 2000). Research carried out by Hughes et al (1989, cited in Mullender and Morley (1994)) illustrates that children who are abused physically and/or sexually and witness domestic violence are ‘doubly abused’ and show large amounts of distress. Wolfe (1985, cited in Hester et al (2000)) states that witnessing violence to their mothers can have a more of a detrimental impact on children than their own abuse.
In the pursuit of safety many women and children face homelessness and may have to move to alternative temporary accommodation in a new and unfamiliar area. As a result many children may also lose their friends, all their possessions and sometimes their extended family, which can then have a negative effect on schooling, academic achievement, behaviour and physical and mental health (Vostanis and Cumella, 1999). It is also important to recognise the on-going risks to children as a consequence of both post-separation violence and post-separation contact with the abusive parent. It is known that violence may escalate around the time of separation (Mullender and Morley, 1994). Violent male partners may continue to abuse and harass their ex-partners after separation and will use any situation to do so, e.g. via contact arrangements for the children. According to Thompson (1999) courts continue to allow violent fathers to have contact with their children even when it is obvious it is not in the children’s best interests and in this way perpetrators are enabled to continue having a detrimental impact on the lives of children. To illustrate this further, Dobson (2002) states that three quarters of children who were ordered by the courts to have contact with abusive or violent parents suffered either sexual or physical abuse, emotional harm, neglect, or were abducted or involved in an abduction attempt.
Traditionally the abuse of women and the abuse of children have been examined as separate issues, with services and policies being developed at different stages by different groups. However, the interconnectedness if men’s abuse of both children and women are important considerations, with the presence of one often suggesting the presence of the other. The Farmer and Owen study ‘Child Protection Practice: Private Risks and Public Remedies’ (1995, cited in Hester et al (2000)), found that in three out of five cases where children had suffered physical abuse, neglect or emotional abuse, the mothers were also subject to violence from their male partners. Domestic violence was a feature of most cases with the worst outcomes for children, and professionals were found to give little attention to the fact that children were witnessing and living with high levels of violence. Where concerns have been raised about a child’s safety and/or welfare, social workers should be alert to the links between child abuse and domestic violence.
Children who are experiencing domestic violence may benefit from a range of support and services and some may be considered to be at risk of ‘significant harm’. As previously highlighted, domestic violence is likely to have a damaging effect on the health and development of children and it may be appropriate to regard such children as children in need (DoH, 1999). In some circumstances a core assessment using the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Assessment Framework) (DoH, et al, 2000) should be initiated. Allegations of domestic violence need to be explored as an integral part of any assessment and should be bought to the forefront on the basis that they are matters concerning children just as much as, if not more than, adults.
The Assessment Framework (DoH, et al, 2000) provides the foundation for a systematic assessment of children and families. The framework encompasses three key domains for assessment: the child’s development, parenting capacity and wider family and environmental factors. It highlights that an assessment is an on-going process, not a single event, and reinforces the importance of multi-agency contribution to the assessment process and the provision of services. The assessment framework is complemented by the Working Together to Safeguard Children (DoH, 1999) document, which is intended to provide a national framework for inter-agency co-operation in child protection. Further multi-agency guidance for domestic violence is available in the ‘Living Without Fear’ document, which is the governments campaign towards tackling violence against women (Home Office, 2000).
There are specific implications for social workers when completing assessments or providing services for families affected by the experience of domestic violence. It is initially important to acknowledge that the way in which professionals respond to disclosures of domestic violence has a significant bearing on subsequent outcomes, regardless of when the disclosure is made during the assessment. Children need to feel that they have been heard and reassurances should be given that the violence is not their fault and they did the right thing to tell someone. Depending on the age and development of children, disclosure may be facilitated by sensitive questioning or through play and artwork (Hester et al, 2000). It is important that the social worker feel equipped to ask sensitive, open ended questions, appropriate training and regular supervision should be in place to facilitate this process (Hester et al, 2000). By raising such issues children come to know that practitioners are aware of the existence of domestic violence and gives them permission to disclose their experiences in the knowledge that they will be believed.
Some factors to be considered in any subsequent work with children will include, whether s/he has been abused directly (the woman may not be aware if direct abuse has taken place), frequency and severity of experience, the relationship s/he has with each parent (specifically to explore attachment patterns), presenting behaviours and coping mechanisms. Above all, it is crucial that necessary support is provided to enable the non-abusive mother to meet her own child’s needs in safety (Mullender and Morley, 1994).
Any assessment must recognise specific issues for people with specific needs. For example, the specific issues for people from ethnic minority groups and disabled people should be addressed and where necessary, additional support should be made available e.g. interpreters, adaptations needed to enable a person to participate fully in the assessment process. According to Mullender (2000, Com Care, 9-15 March) children in south Asian households often fear unsympathetic responses from their own communities, while other children from ethnic minority backgrounds sometimes anticipate racist reactions from white professionals. Children have reported professionals as either ignoring or disbelieving of their experiences. Children who live with domestic violence want support, understanding and reassurance. Children need to be kept informed about what is happening in ways appropriate to their age and understanding. Social workers and professionals need to recognise that it is frightening for children not be able to discuss what they have seen or heard in the home.
Abusive men are often able to intimidate and manipulate women and children in ways that others present would not necessarily recognise e.g. a certain look, which the child recognises as a warning. For this reason it is crucial to ensure individual family members have the opportunity to disclose information in one to one sessions (Mullender and Morley, 1994). In line with good practice, parents should be worked with in partnership. However, in cases of domestic violence it may be necessary to make separate arrangements for each parent due to the on-going victimisation of the women and children by the violent men. In practice this will mean separate attendance at formal meetings such as case conferences and reviews and ensuring women and children are able to have access to a separate waiting area. In terms of women and children’s on-going safety, it is crucial that confidentiality is maintained in relation to new addresses being recorded on formal documentation which the man could potentially have access to.
In circumstances where parenting capacity has been impaired as a result of domestic violence, women are often perceived by professionals as inadequate or as unable to cope. It has been recognised, however, that with support, particularly with help to be safe, mothers can usually resume parenting of their children (Hester et al, 2000). In addition, the gender dynamics and inequalities involved in domestic violence need to be considered in order to understand reasons why women stay in abusive relationships, even when there are children in the family. Often women are unaware that the children have witnessed the violence and when they are aware, have done their best to ensure that they are as safe. Many women have been threatened that the children will be harmed or are afraid that the children will be removed if they tell anyone about the violence. As stated in the Working Together to Safeguard Children guidelines state that “ asking for help should be seen as a sign of responsibility rather than as a parenting failure (DoH, 1999, 1.4). Expectations placed on women to leave the abusive partner in order to protect the children ignores the reality of post-separation violence and violence during contact (Hester et al, 2000). Practical safety planning with individual women and children (recognising the dangers of intervening, thinking about who to call for help, planning where to hide) can help prevent abuse being repeated.
Every week thousands of children in England and Wales are required to spend time with men who are known to be violent within the family. In some cases, home visits may be ordered and children may have to stay overnight with no supervision whatsoever (Women’s Aid, 2002). According to Women’s Aid (2000) applying for a contact order is the easiest way for an abuser to locate and harass his ex-partner and children. Social workers need to be aware that in some cases, contact provides the abuser with the continued opportunity to physically, sexually and emotionally abuse children further and provides him with the chance to intimidate, coerce and manipulate both women and children. In 1999 a survey found that 76% of the 148 children included, mostly under the age of five, had been ordered by the courts to have contact with a violent man. As a result of this contact:
- 10% were said to have been sexually abused during contact
- 15% were physically assaulted
- 26% were abducted or involved in an abduction attempt
- 36% were neglected during contact
- 62% suffered emotional harm (Women’s Aid, 2002)
Multi-agency working can bring together different professional groups involved, or potentially involved, in responding to domestic violence and is crucial in ensuring an accurate and holistic assessment of the family’s needs. This can promote a common and shared understanding not only of the issues, but also of the respective roles and responsibilities of different professionals, and can contribute to more effective working relationships. It is important to engage the expertise of voluntary organisations that specialise in the working with children who have experienced domestic violence to ensure that children receive support from an appropriate resource. As highlighted by Hester et al (2000) “the continuum of support needed will range from low key interventions consisting of validation and affirmation of children’s experiences through to long term therapy” (p 159) and it is crucial for the social worker to secure such services on behalf of children. It is vital to involve women and children wherever services are provided in order to promote empowerment, consultation, involvement and feedback.
While working in partnership with women is important, a new concept of user involvement has been recently introduced in cases where there are child protection concerns; Family Group Conferencing (FGC) (DoH, 1999). The FGC provides an opportunity for member’s of the child’s extended family to identify their own plan to address concerns about their family member. This idea is a positive move towards empowering families as a whole however, needs to be used cautiously in cases where domestic violence is present. The social worker needs to be aware of the secret arena that domestic violence takes place in and also needs to understand the functioning of the family in relation to concepts of cultural and gender stereotypes.
Social workers are required to work within the limitations of both the civil law and the criminal justice system (Children Act 1989, Family Law Act 1996, Housing Act 1996 and Protection from Harassment Act 1997) at all times. Under the children Act 1989 married fathers can use their parental responsibility to demand information about their children, particularly from schools. Sometimes this has enabled an abuser to track down his former partner with the result that both the woman and child are placed in danger. It is important for social workers to be familiar with the legal framework that provides protection against domestic violence in order to provide information to women and children about their legal rights and advice on how the judicial system can provide protection.
To conclude, the impact on children living with domestic violence is subjective. There is not one typical reaction, but a range of behavioural and/or emotional difficulties may be observed as children respond to their own individual experiences of distress and facilitate their unique coping strategies. There are many factors that influence the impact of domestic violence on children. It is clear that children’s experiences may be short or long term and some of this can be determined by the way professionals interact with them from the point of disclosure right through to the end of statutory intervention. It is recognised that women’s and children’s interests may conflict, but except where this is irresolvably the case, the most effective way to help children is to understand what is happening to their mothers and to work in partnership with them and empower them to make their own life choices. The protection and well being of the mother has a direct bearing on the safety and welfare of the child and, as such, should form a key element in any assessment plan to offer support and protection.
