Durkheim view of Crime

For durkheim crime engages a functional role in the social structure, having an immense impact upon the strain theory in portraying a very critical and influential analysis on crime and the explanations of it. Durkheims work significantly influenced the Strain theory in that he illustrated the relationship between social structures, cultural context and individual action and linked it back to individualism and criminality within the social dimension (Henry,S Mark M Lanier (2004) Essential Criminology). Durkheims influence on the strain theory has been extremely broad in criminology and sociology, in that his view that social forces caused crime was extremely radical at the time (Robert K Merton (1949) Social theory and social structure). Emile durkheim’s work not only influenced the strain theory but also influenced the Chicago school significantly. His thoughts influenced many, in an attempt to explain the reasons and explanations of criminality; he revealed the idea of the many blocked opportunities faced by individuals within the urbanized environment and nature of crime. (Lecture5:). Durkheim focused on the zone in transition and the disorganisation within such an environment in an effort to explain why there was such disorganisation and conflict within. Furthermore, Durkheim's idea of the destructiveness of modern urbanisation within the Chicago school was explained, and thus expanded the idea of a traditional, mechanical society further by being replaced by a more modern, organic society with different social integration. (Bulmer,M (1984) ‘the significance of the Chicago school’)

Emile durkheim was the founding father of academic sociology in France and a major social theorist working out the turn of the 21st century. Durkheim was writing during the midst of the rapid industrialisation of the French society. Intellectually, the main drive of durkheims work was against individualism both as a mode of analysing society and as a basis of political order. Analytically, individualism attempted to explain social action as a function of biological tendency which at times were systematically criticised (Hopkins Burke, (2001) An Introduction to criminological theory). Durkehims work was seen of great importance with the aim of consistently presenting a critical analysis of society and of social problems, in an approach which demonstrated such close relationship between the social structure and the norms and values of society. (Robert K Merton, Robert Nisbet (1971)contemporary Social Problems). One criminological theory durkheim developed in an attempt to explain why individuals committed crimes is known as the strain theory. Durkheim’s strain theory claims that crime is a result of lower class frustration and anger, and that the increased strain of being unable to achieve certain socioeconomic goals creates an increased amount of strain, thus causing crime and delinquency (website: edited by Pragma on the 3rd of April 2003). His influence on the strain theory can be articulated to be one which is momentous. He defined the meaning of a state where societal and moral norms are confused or absent as ‘anomie’. (Website: edited by Pragma on the 3rd of April 2003) (It should also be noted that Durkheims theory of anomie is actually the basis for strain theory). It is evident to articulate that of all theories which have been influential in explaining the social causation of crime and deviant behaviour anomie theory is paramount. However it is the anomie theory which attempts to pinpoint the genesis of crime and deviance in the dominant structure and culture of society

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Durkheim believed that there was a division between people and groups for example he argued that such organisation of industrialized societies creates divisions between not only people but also between groups based on social position in a hierarchy and occupational role within the system (known as the division of labour). (Henry S et.al (2004) essential criminology) functionalist sociologists believe that social roles become specialized and worker interdependently to serve the system as a whole. Emile durkheim first offered the basic element of this functionalist analysis of crime in 1893, when he tried to clarify how society could change from the stability of its pre industrial order to the potential chaos that the capitalist industrial system could create. He argued that in times of rapid change the moral directive of behavior is destabilized by the structural divisions and by a sect of the individual, which therefore promotes some kind of criminal behavior (Henry S et.al (2004) essential criminology).Strain theorists like durkheim, assume that crime is a standard reaction to abnormal social conditions and that strain theory emphasizes the problem solving functions served by nonconforming, delinquent and criminal behavior. Different strain theorists however, disagree over some fundamental dimensions of their theory and thus emphasize different aspects of its components. For example: durkheims original theory of anomie assumes a view of humans born with insatiable appetites to be heightened or diminished by the social structure. In contrast, Merton assumes that individual appetites are “culturally rather than structurally induced” (Henry S et.al (2004) essential criminology p.234.)Durkheim reveals a key issue within the concept of strain theory, which is, “a society experiencing such structural strain is unable to remain meaningful sense of moral authority with regard to normative controls on behaviour and is referred to as being in a state of anomie” (Maynard M, (1989) Sociology in focus, sociological theory p.36.)

Durkheim also reveals the idea that societal strain can affect people, groups and organizations in different ways as they seek to adapt to solve the problems that such strain creates (Henry S et.al (2004) essential criminology).

Strain theory attempts to explain the occurrence of not just crime but also broader deviance and disorder in that durkhein attempted to show, that such causes of crime must be intimately bounded up with the form assumed by the social arrangements of the time (R.Hopkins Burke,(2001) An Introduction to criminological theory).However, it has often been argued that for durkheim crime was a normal social fact, meaning that it was a fundamental feature of human ontology, whereas for Marx and for other new criminologists, deviance was seen as normal in the sense that men are now consciously involved in asserting their human diversity (White R, Haines F (2004) Crime and Criminology). After stressing the importance of individualism within the social structure, and social facts as a product of human activity, durkheim focused primarily on crime. He argued that crime was defined in terms of punishment, that is

Punishment is not the essence of crime, but it does constitute a symptom thereof, and consequently, in order to understand crime, we must begin with punishment (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories p.56.)

Durkheim further assured that ‘an intimate bond must exist between punishment and the intrinsic attributes of these acts defined as crimes’. Durkhiem identified 2 types of social facts: normal and pathological. In particular, Durkheim stated that crime is normal because crime exists in the majority of societies of all types. “There is no society that is not confronted with the problem of criminality”. Furthermore he depicts criminality as normal because a society which is exempt from is merely impossible (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories p.56.)

In 1810 Chicago was a frontier trading outpost, however over the 19th century it developed as a lowland haven well situated to the American colonial expansion of the western frontier. It is because of this that the city expanded rapidly due to both domestic and international migration becoming a culturally and ethnically diverse city. The Chicago school of sociology was founded in 1892, with W.1.Thomas being one of its first great theorists. He was the first sociologist there to conduct research that has a significant experimental element (R.Hopkins Burke,(2001) An Introduction to criminological theory). The study was huge as it conducted over a ten year period that examined the immigration of Polish peasants involving the passage (transition) from old forms of European social organisation to a modern form of life in such an alien culture. Private letters between immigrants in America and their families in Poland and life histories of their experiences were used in this ground-breaking study (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories).The Chicago school influenced the stain theory not only through its ideas but also through several strain theorists which had their beginnings in the Chicago school, in particular Emile Durkheim. “The influence of the Chicago school echoes that of Durkheim” (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories p.134). Chicago school sociologists contributed much work on social disorganisation and a dual conceptualization of the self. (Lilly, Cullen, and Ball 1995). This text uses a metaphor in order to give a detailed description of the Chicago school in relation to Durkheim’s history. For Example: “The city of Chicago like Durkheim’s war-torn France, was in a state of great upheaval when the university of Chicago, and subsequently the department of sociology was founded”. Such a metaphor not only gives an insight into the ‘city of Chicago’ but also allows the responder to realise that there was an influx of immigration which created a great deal of conflict that resulted in ‘social disorganisation’ (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories p.134).Various Chicago school researches from the Hull house and the university studied both the causes and the effects of such disorganisation. In contrast to Durkheim’s view, they found that the areas of the city with the highest rates of social disorganisation also had higher rates of crime and delinquency.

The Chicago school, much like Durkheim saw the self as a combination of the social self and the primal self. Such conception of the self is evident within the Chicago school and the influences of Emile Durkheim are of particular importance (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories). Another prime influence on the study of criminology which emerged out of the Chicago school was Durkheim’s work along with the ideas developed by Robert Park and Louis Wirth who developed the idea of social disorganisation and the subculture theory. Like Durkheim, they viewed social disorganisation as the nature of the zone in transition, referring to urbanisation (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) Criminological Theories).The zone in transition however was the main focus of study, in contained rows of deteriorating tenements and it was this disorganisation theory that influenced the primary explanation of criminal behaviour (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories).It was Cliffor Shaw and Henry McKay who set out the zone theory and conduction of the juvenile statistics, and such analysis gave meaning to Durkheims work as it led to his more significant commentaries on the Chicago school. The zone in transition was the area (according to E.Burgess, their fellow Chicago scholar) where crime rates are highest and delinquent behaviour is abundant. Such deviance was seen as a consequence of the lack of moral constraints and norms- ie. A state of anomie. (Website:http://www.academicdb.com/examine_durkheim_s_ideas_have_influenced_geography_330/ date: 2004)

Wirth developed Durkheim’s ideas of the destructiveness of modern urbanisation when he expanded the idea of a traditional, mechanical society being replaced by a more modern, organic society with different social integration. Wirth, famous for his “Urbanism as a way of life”(1938), recognized the importance of the individual, unlike Durkheim, in that he or she had to adapt their behaviour to cope with the new environment of organic solidarity (Website:http://www.academicdb.com/examine_durkheim_s_ideas_have_influenced_geography_330/ date: 2004).Durkheim used two different societies in order to explain solidarity within a chaotic society constructing either a mental or theoretical model which would further explain order and harmony within the changing world. He described the first society as being mechanical where he expressed the ‘collective conscience’ as the totality of likenesses. Durkheim suggests that it is the collective conscience which creates crime and leads to solidarity. He describes the second society as ‘organic solidarity’ where he assumed that such a society was the result of a slow evolutionary change brought about by the industrial revolution (Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) Criminological Theories). Wirth further argues that the urban environment, with its disturbing atmosphere causes all different types of deviant behaviour such as, separation and destruction which led to social disorganisation. Such disorganisation further results in the disintegration of norms and regulations that maintain social cohesion resulting in anomie and crime. It is therefore most difficult to argue one of the two; whether the urban environment actually causes crime or whether the sociological concept of anomie is in actual fact predictable within society which further causes such deviant behaviour and delinquency (Website:http://www.academicdb.com/examine_durkheim_s_ideas_have_influenced_geography_330/ date: 2004).

In addition, Durkheim’s work influenced the strain theory enormously, as he attempted to explain crime and the causes of it. However it was the anomie theory which attempted to identify the basis of crime and deviance in the primary structure and culture of society. Durkheim’s theory of anomie was the foundation for Strain theory, in that his influence has been extremely broad and viewed social forces which caused crime analytically. Furthermore Durkheim’s theory taken as a whole explained crime thoroughly and linked such explanation back to the breakdown of social controls which he also explained. Durkheim also had great significant in regards to the Chicago School; his work influenced such a school enormously explaining why such disorganisation existed within the social context and why certain conflict also existed. On the whole Durkheim used the zone in transition to his advantage, as he used this to explain why there was such disorganisation and controversy within. He also revealed a very crucial and underlying concept which was the idea of the many blocked opportunities faced by individuals within the urbanized environment.

REFERENCE LIST

TEXT BOOKS

Henry,S Mark M Lanier (2004) Essential Criminology 2nd ed, Westview press

Robert K Merton. Social theory and social structure (1949) the free press of Glencoe, Illinois, Columbia University

Bulmer,M (1984) ‘the significance of the Chicago school’, in the Chicago school of Sociology, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago

R.Hopkins Burke,(2001) An Introduction to criminological theory, WP Willan Publishing

Robert K Merton, Robert Nisbet, contemporary Social Problems 3rd ed, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich inc (1971)

Maynard M, (1989) Sociology in focus, sociological theory, Longman Inc NewYork

White R, Haines F (2004) Crime and Criminology an Introduction 3rd ed. Oxford University Press

Imogene L. Moyer, (2001) criminological Theories: Traditional and Non Traditional voices and themes, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Sage Publications

WEBSITES:

Criminology: Strain Theory edited by Pragma on the 3rd of April 2003 at , accessed on: 18/8/05

Examine how Durkheim’s ideas influenced the geography of crime: at

. Date:10/3/2004 accessed on: 15/8/05

Durkheim’s Legacy: at Date: 19/2/04 accessed on: 19/8/05

WEEK 5 Lecture: