Examine an area of oppression and discuss how this manifests itself in institutions and societies and how it impacts upon the lives of individuals and communities.

This essay will examine disability as an area of oppression in society. When answering this question it would be useful, first of all to put forward a definition for the term disability. The Disability Discrimination Act (1995) describes disability as ‘a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his or her ability to carry out normal day to day activities’. In Northern Ireland there are an estimated 201,000 Disabled Adults (Working with Diversity). Despite this high number, people with disabilities are treated as a separate homogenous group to the rest of society. I will examine how this oppression has manifested itself through institutions by drawing on the medical and the social model of disability. The medical model of disability is seen as being a discriminatory perspective that perceives disability as a personal tragedy. In contrast, Thompson (2006) regards the social model of disability as being an anti-discriminatory perspective that requires a change in how we view disability. Thompson (2006) refers to disablism as ‘the systematic discrimination and prejudice against people with disabilities which produces a milieu of oppression and degradation’ (p.122). Lack of inclusion, segregated education, isolation and poor job prospects, these key factors all impact on the lives of people with disabilities. I aim to examine how these key themes and what implications this has for social work practice. Thompsons (2006) PCS model provides a useful tool for social workers to analyse how discrimination operates within society. This is an essential tool if social workers are to meet the requirements of anti-oppressive practice. Firstly, to understand where we are today with disability it would be useful to provide a brief historical account of disability in western society.

Historically, disability has been a source of oppression where disabled people have been socially excluded from many areas of social life. This exclusion can be traced back to an era when biblical ideas formed the basis of society. This religious model of disability produced notions of what was acceptable and not acceptable this included the exclusion of imperfections of the body. Imperfect bodies were presented as immoral and disability was perceived as a punishment inflicted on a person for their sins (Clapton & Fitzgerald 2008). The 18th and 19th century was an era where scientific reason and rationale thinking about the social world led to new notions about disability. Gelb (1995) notes that following the eugenics movement in the 20th century scientific knowledge combined with theological thought led to the assumption that individuals with disabilities were a threat to society. Furthermore, the bodies of people with disabilities where controlled through abortion and sterilisation to ensure the survival of the fittest. This perception led to people with disabilities being placed in institutions as a form of segregation from mainstream society (Clapton & Fitzgerald 2008). Present day connections with the past can still be seen where children with specific needs are sent to ‘special’ education schools and segregated from the mainstream education system. Additionally, pre-natal screening and terminations if a ‘problem’ is detected (Horner 2007).

The medical model of disability regards people with disabilities as passive victims of their impairment. Furthermore, disability is considered to be a burden to both the family and the community. Thompson (2006) regards this tendency to see disability as a personal tragedy is directly linked to disablism. Using Thompsons PCS model to reveal how prejudice operates on a personal and cultural level will aid social workers in achieving anti-oppressive practice. This model of disability is dehumanising in that it leads to a view that the nature of the disability is the most important aspect of identity with a need to be cured or fixed. The disabled body is measured against the able body and constructed as abnormal and unequal (Barnes et al. 2002). Ideas based on the medical model of disability have contributed to the oppression of people with disabilities in society. Oliver (1990) is critical of the medical model of disability for being the root cause for discrimination, oppression and marginalisation of people with impairments. Furthermore, Oliver contends, that any model of disability would not be adequate if it is not based on the collective experiences of disabled people themselves. This is an important point since historically past perspectives and policies of disability have been centred on non disabled views of disability. Oliver (1990) uses a Marxist framework to provide an explanation of the impact industrialisation had on disabled people. Peoples with disabilities experienced high levels of social exclusion as factory work replaced agricultural work from the home. Those individuals who were unable to sell their labour for power were marginalised and excluded from mainstream society. It is here that state intervention began with the lives of people with impairments. The opening of workhouses, asylums and special education schools brought social control with the rise of a capitalist society. Foucault (1977) contends that the state is an apparatus used to control individuals in society including the regulation of the body of people with disabilities.

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Thanks to disability rights activists there have been changes in what the term disability means. There has been a slow progression from the medical model to the social model of disability from the 1970’s onwards. The social model begins by drawing a distinction between impairment and disability (Swain et al. 2004). Thompson (2006) contends that “impairment is the lack of part of or all of a limb, or having a defective limb, organ or mechanism of the body’ (p.124). The social model of disability views societal attitudes and the built environment as disabling, rather than the impairment. This model of disability has been developed by activists who have impairments and call for the removal of those barriers in all areas of society that prevents inclusion and equality for everyone. This includes access to the mainstream education system, better employment opportunities and access to all infrastructures (Swain et al. 2004).

Barton (1995) provides a critique of segregated special education for creating stereotypical and negative labels that are attached to pupils who attend ‘special’ needs schools. Furthermore, Barton argues that ‘pupils within special education schools receive an inferior education to their able-bodied peers and the rhetoric of ‘caring’ and ‘supporting’ often obscures this fact (1995: 29). Additionally, segregated provision of education contributes to a heightening of difference between individuals who have impairments and those who do not. This ultimately impacts on social attitudes and shapes assumptions about disability. Quickie (1992) argues that the education system for disabled people creates ‘disorder, alienation and a culture of dependency’ (p.2). Furthermore, marginalisation within the education system negatively impacts on disabled peoples opportunities for well paid employment or training opportunities with further education in adult life. Individuals with disabilities need equal access to the same learning opportunities as those individuals who do not have a disability. From these critiques of segregated education for people with disabilities, it can be argued that this kind of provision of education is poor and leads to social exclusion and oppression. Therefore, inclusive education would help eliminate stereotypical assumptions as well as provide a broader more comprehensive education for people with disabilities.

People with disabilities can also experience oppression when leaving the education system and entering the labour market. For example, access to employment can be restricted as a result of limited qualifications. This is directly linked to people with impairments living on low incomes. Therefore, lack of educational opportunity and contributes to a high number of disabled people experiencing poverty (Swain et al. 2004). Poverty statistics indicate there are around one and a half million people living in poverty in the UK. In addition to this, in Northern Ireland, from 2005/06 to 2007/08, 30 per cent of disabled working-age adults in Northern Ireland were living in low-income households. This is two times the rate for non-disabled adults living in Northern Ireland (The Poverty Site 2009). Barnes & Mercer (1995) contend that disabled people experience higher levels of economic and social deprivation than any other group in society.

In Northern Ireland the equality commission is responsible for implementing the Disability Discrimination Act (1995). This piece of legislation has helped to alleviate discrimination in the workplace. However, it would be useful to note that practicalities still arise. For example, not all disabled people have access to and around workplace environments. Under the Disability Discrimination Act (1995) employers are required to make ‘reasonable adjustments’ for employees who have disabilities. However, what is deemed ‘reasonable adjustment’ is contestable by employers (Swain et al. 2004). Lack of accessibility within the workplace will negatively impact on the employability of people with impairments. Thompsons (2006) directly links this to the Structural level of the PCS model where people with disabilities do not have the same access to infrastructures as people who do not have a disability. Furthermore, social attitudes towards individuals who have a disability can effect an employer’s decision on rejecting or accepting applications for employment (Roulstone 1988). According to Graham et al (1990) disabled people are less likely to be accepted for a position of employment than someone who is not disabled. This can be linked to negative social attitudes towards disability. These accounts of discrimination and oppression within the labour market are interconnected to the issue of disability and poverty. Leaman (1981) states, ‘poverty does not arise because of the psychical inability to work or earn a living but because we are prevented from working by the way work is organised’ (p.14).

The media is a powerful and influential institution that shapes the representation of disability. For example, the media has the power to shape societal perceptions and attitudes towards those with impairments. Stereotypical images of disability in the media are based on the medical model of disability. Characters are often portrayed as victims in need of help from charities or medical intervention (Swain et al. 2004). Disability activist Paul Hunt (1991) conducted a study to investigate the stereotypical images of people with disabilities in the media. This study identified ten stereotypical images of impairment that contribute to the disempowerment of people with disabilities. Despite this study being carried out in 1991 it still has relevance today. For example, in 2002 British television drama, ‘The Lost Prince’ depicted a story of a prince incapable of participating in society because of his impairment (British Film Institute 2006). Thompson (2006) contends that the oppression of people with disabilities manifests itself through institutions such as the media on a structural level and portrays a stereotypical image of dependency. This is then reinforced and manifests itself through the cultural and personal level of discrimination. Furthermore, Thompson claims that ‘ideology refers to the power of ideas to maintain existing structures and social relations’ (Thompson, 2001:27)

If social workers are to be competent at anti-oppressive practice they need to be aware of the how disability intersects with other aspects of identity. Thompson argues that individuals are ‘located within the social structure in terms of the intersection of different social divisions’ (Thompson, 2001:17). For example, when working with people with disabilities, sex, race, age and gender must also be recognised as areas of oppression. Furthermore, Thompson (2006) notes how social work practice needs to avoid a paternalistic relationship with people who have impairments. Working in partnership and promoting empowerment is essential if anti-oppressive practice is to be achieved. Social workers must not reinforce the underpinnings of the medical model of disability.

To conclude, this essay began by giving my understanding of the socially constructed nature of disability as an area of oppression within a historical context. I have discussed principles of the social model of disability that have slowly replaced the medical model of disability. This anti-discriminatory model of disability locates the problem of disability not on the individual but in the structures of society. When examining the oppression of disabled people, the institutions and structures I have focused on are the media, education system, employment and social services. Using the social model approach to disability, I have examined how society’s attitude concerning impairment is connected to oppression. I have attempted to explain the personal, cultural and structural nature of impairment in contemporary society within a sociological framework. Using Thompson’s PCS analysis I have examined how discrimination manifests itself through society. Thompson (2006) notes how this discrimination is best understood by examining the wider social context that it takes place. This is particularly important for social work when seeking to achieve anti-oppressive practice. Lastly, due to the word count, this essay is limited in that it does not provide a critique of the social model provided from a postmodernist perspective. However, one main critique of the social model is that despite the progress it has made within policy the social model ignores the subjective experience of disability (Corker & Shakespeare 2002).

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Teacher Reviews

Here's what a teacher thought of this essay

Diane Apeah-Kubi

5th of Apr 2013

I was impressed with the quality of the work in this essay examining how those with disabilities are oppressed, and what the impact of this is on those individuals. The essay usefully gives a definition of disability and took the unusual approach of using the 2 models of disability to highlight the challenges disabled people can face. Generally there is good use of supporting references, although there is room to be more consistent with this as indicated in the annotations. There was a clear discussion re the impact of the oppression that can be in place, but I did not note a clear discussion re the impact on communities as the introduction to the essay suggested there would be; therefore this is the key area for improvement. Some of the references were fairly old - so consider using more recent work/research where possible. Nevertheless, a strong piece of work.

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