- Propertied upper class
- Property-less white-collar workers
- Petit bourgeoisie (e.g. shopkeepers)
- Manual working class
In principle, he agreed with Marx about the importance of the division in capitalist society between those living off property and those living off wages, but in practice, he went on to make finer distinctions between social classes. He believed that as the division of labour become more complex, classes would become less heterogeneous.
Weber always accepted that we live in a multi-layered society and that there are at least 4-5 different main classes, some with sub-classes. This model is better equipped to deal with the existence of middle class groups.
Thee main difference between Marx and Weber is that Marxists view class relationships as grounded in exploitation and domination within production relations. Weberians, however, regard classes as reflecting positions in the market place.
Each of these models has strengths and weaknesses. Some sociologists draw on one or the other, but many of them find something useful in all of them.
PC b.
Explanation of the effect of social class on communication both within and between groups is accurate in terms of sociological perspectives.
Language varies between and within classes. The Weberian class model is the easiest to use when looking at this, due to its acceptance of the existence of multi-layered societies. There are expectations on how people will speak in formal (and informal) situations depending on their social class. These expectations come from stereotyping. However, much of the linguistic variation is due to what region we live in.
Often, this is simply because different regions will have a regional accent and within that region, various dialects are found. Accents and dialects affect grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Social background or social class also causes variations in pronunciation and vocabulary, due to the different social contexts in which a person may have to speak. The formality (or informality) of the situation also affects the language used.
In Britain, regional and social variants of English have developed because linguistic changes have taken place in different parts of the country and in different sections of the community. These variations do not spread across the entire county due to distance and will only spread to areas within close contact. Geographical borders also play an important role in this. Areas once separated are now easily joined which causes linguistic changes to spread much wider than they used to. These changes are often exaggerated because they are seen as part of an identity, i.e. they show where you come from and to change back would be seen as “letting the side down.”
The most well known variation of English is the dialect known as Standard English. This is the form of English taught to foreign learners and is used by those who consider themselves to be ‘educated’. It is subject to regional variations but has nothing to do with pronunciation. It is the differences in pronunciation that make for differences of accent. Many people have the same accent but no two people have the same voice. It is a speaker’s voice that we recognise when we hear it. It is possible for someone to change their accent, but not their voice.
There are some Standard English speakers who have an accent which, although clearly British, is not regional within Britain. This is known as ‘BBC English’, ‘the Queens English’ and ‘public school accent’. Pupils and ex-pupils of large public schools, who are generally speaking, from the upper classes within society, typically use it. As a general rule, people do not betray their geographical origins in their pronunciation, but they do betray their social status. This is because of the relationship between dialect and accent on one hand, and social and regional background on the other.
At the bottom of the social scale, there is a wide range of geographical dialects and accents, which change from place to place. At the other end of the scale there is Standard English, with small regional variations. At intermediate social levels there are accents and dialects which are more, or less, regional depending on the level.
PC c.
Explanation of the ways in which non-verbal cues affect communication is accurate in relation to accent and social class.
The contributions of verbal and non-verbal cues are very important. Non-verbal ones especially, since 93% of communication is non-verbal. They improve our ability to understand and interpret what someone means. When used together, they improve the accuracy of our interpretations of the messages we see and hear. When the verbal and non-verbal cues contradict one-an-other, it becomes more difficult to interpret what they are meaning. As mentioned previously, non-verbal cues and more important that verbal ones. They help us to understand people better, especially when we don’t understand what they are verbally saying to us. Each gesture is like a word, which we can structure together to form sentences. These gestures should be compared and read along with each other as things are not always as they first appear. Two or more non-verbal cues read together will be interpreted completely differently to one read alone. Non-verbal cues are a more reliable guide to our real feelings.
Examples of non-verbal cues are:
- Body gestures
- Body movement
- Facial expressions
- Posture
- Habits
- Smell
- Personal space
- Personal touch
- Dress
- Eye contact
As social beings, we have to present ourselves to others. Our personal image is created by a combination of our physical appearance, the clothes we wear, our regional accent, as well as other NVC’s. We can change the way people perceive us, to a degree, by changing our appearance. The impression people are left with may be different to what the other person is really like, and this can be a useful tool in certain situations, for example, at a job interview, where you want to impress and be at your best. Appearance can often be more important than language skills and communication. If you don’t look the part, you can often be overlooked.
NVC’s are often different between social classes. The higher the social class, the better groomed they tend to be. For example, a high class business man would dress smartly and tidily for formal and informal situations, while someone in a lower social class may dress smartly for formal situations but very casually or untidy for informal situations.
PC d.
Explanation of relationship between social class and language behaviour is accurate in terms of current research in the field of sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistic codes, also known as linguistic codes, are one of the most quoted and least understood concepts in the sociology of education. Basil Bernstein became world famous for the concept of linguistic codes, which derived from the two main traditions in the post-war British sociology of education.
To explain the differences in educational achievement between middle and working class children in terms of home background.
To reveal how knowledge is an integral part of class inequalities, reproduction and social control in a capitalist society.
Bernstein’s thesis attempted to link what went on in the home and school with the overall structure of power and inequality by showing that the way people speak gives them access to, or excludes them from, educational knowledge and success, as well as positions of power and privilege. His aim has been to crack the linguistic and cultural codes that he believes control the distribution of wealth and power in advanced capitalist societies.
He used the idea of elaborate and restricted codes. Elaborate codes are more grammatically accurate, logical and descriptive. Meaning is made explicit by a wider vocabulary, greater use of detail and an individualistic explanation selected to fit the needs and knowledge of a particular context or social group.
Bernstein used these codes originally to explain social class differences in educational attainment. Schools are very middle class, as are the teachers, who would communicate using elaborate codes. While the middle class children would feel ‘at home’ and have no trouble following and understanding the teachers. The working class children would feel alienated and would have trouble following and understanding. From this it can be seen that linguistic codes function as a form of class reproduction, which provides a means of creating and maintaining the identity and unity of the middle class, which excludes the working class from power and privilege.
PC e.
Explanation of the effects of social class on the interpretations of a media message is accurate.
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