Explore the emergence of environmental debates in development theory over the last fifty years.

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Richard Thomas

Explore the emergence of environmental debates in development theory over the last fifty years.

        This essay looks at the background leading up to, and reasons for, the emergence of environmental debates in development theory over the last fifty years. It will illustrate the issues and discourses present in environmental debates, the actors and debators, and with reference to examples from both ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries, show how environmentalism challenges modern development theory. We start by looking at how environmental concerns, despite their historical presence in ancient philosophies and civilizations (Redclift, 1987), were marginalised through the creation and evolution of the post-war ‘development project’.

        The end of the Second World War in 1945 marked the beginnings of major changes in the theory of development on a worldwide scale. The system of formal colonialism, which accounted for 84.6% of the world’s land surface in the 1930s (Jones, 2001), broke down. The US was, by the end of the War, a major world power, holding 60% of the global industrial capacity and looking to secure access to a global market. Europe, Japan and Russia in particular had experienced large-scale destruction and needed to rebuild and strengthen their economies. The ideology of economic development through industrialisation (Keynes’ system of global economic management) became the hegemonic model upon which the operations of governments and transnational corporations were based, overriding cultural, religious and social traditions. President Truman of the United States summarised the objectives of the development project in his inaugural address in January 1949, suggesting “a program of development based on the concepts of democratic fair dealing” and “a wider and more vigorous application of modern scientific and technical knowledge” (Escobar, 1995). The environment was seen as an unlimited resource for mankind to exploit in the name of progress, and nature as an obstacle to development. Chinese governments of the 1950s proudly claimed that they had “finally subdued nature” by turning “desolate” natural grassland into fertile farmland (Qinghai Nongyeting, 1959, in Ho, 2001). Thus, fifty years ago, environmental debates were kept firmly in the background by the overwhelming desire for economic development.

        Environmentalism has emerged as a mainstream concern in different ways across the globe, and the reasons for this will be discussed shortly. Ho defines environmentalism as “a form of voluntary collective action to protect the environment that ranges from the founding of NGOs and green political parties, to social resistance”. It comprises a set of beliefs or values, in this case concerning the Earth’s conservation and the development of mankind. The emergence of environmentalism in the developed world can be seen from a sociological perspective in terms of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943; Inglehart, 1990) – once people’s material needs of food, water, shelter and security have been satisfied, they develop post-materialist concerns such as social relations, self-esteem and quality of life (the latter dependent upon a pleasant environment). However, for many people the conservation of the environment is a material concern, as it provides them directly with their livelihood. Alternatively, the rise of environmental movements in the industrialised countries is attributed by some to a post-industrialist recognition of the limits of economic growth and the need for sustainable development.

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In the West, the 1960s brought about multilateral challenges to development theory and old authoritarian structures. Widespread protest about social issues, for example gender and racial discrimination, forced institutions to drastically re-assess their methods and ideologies – at the same time, a growing environmental consciousness was taking hold. New environmental problems such as acid rain, and the increasing threat of nuclear conflict and resulting pollution, could not be ignored or avoided even by the rich. Environmental disasters were broadcast to the world on an unprecedented scale by the media, as televisions became standard in Western households. In 1968, for the ...

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