Interest in the theory of evolutionary psychology.

POLITICS ASSESSMENT 06/12/01

Within the last century there has been increasing interest in the theory of evolutionary psychology, which attempts to explain why human beings behave in certain fashions. This essay will outline the basis for this theory in two fundamental areas of crime and punishment and conflict and violence within the family and will briefly compare with its main opponent.

Evolutionary psychology (EP) is the combination of biology and psychology that is based on Darwin’s findings on evolution. The modern science has discovered that evolution occurs by way of genes and DNA, with two types of reproduction: hereditary and mutation. The former meaning that offspring resemble parents and the latter that duplication is not always perfect. Part of the theory known as ‘Natural Selection’ is that the mutant genes, which change uniformity, only evolve if they are ‘survival’ genes and not those that would end a species.

The behavioural supposition of EP is that human conduct is genetic. This is in direct conflict with the sociological theory that it is a result of environmental influences leading to the so-called ‘nature versus nurture’ debate. Scientists such as Fodor claim that the mind is made up of modules, which control general actions such as the senses. However, American psychologists believe these modules are much more specific and plentiful than Fodor envisaged. They claim that as well as general purpose survival modules that evolved into humans from apes such as avoiding predators, offspring care, eating correctly and forming alliances there are other modules which have evolved via ‘natural selection’. They acknowledge critics who say that such natural selection would take centuries to evolve and point out that as well as module adaptation there are quicker by-products, which occur along the way, such as reading, the side effect of the modules of vision and language. The resulting hypothesis is that there is not a module for all behaviour but a collection of different by-products. At this point that the theory suffers the most criticism from sociologists who claim that these side effects are the result of environmental influences. This essay will therefore now move on to examine the two aforementioned areas and analyse EP’s credibility as a sole cause.

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The by-product theory is the explanation for criminal behaviour. It is believed that it is the result of several genes synthesizing to produce a side effect of crime. The genes behind crime are predominantly male. Studies of male offenders often show low serotonin levels, high testosterone and low pulse rate, the extremes of survival. Men are twenty-six times more likely to kill another man than a woman would kill another woman. These same sex murders are much more prevalent in young males where testosterone is at its highest.

Men mainly commit both sex murders and ...

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Men mainly commit both sex murders and a quarter of all victims are relatives. Interestingly, seemingly supporting the EP theory, is that rarely are those relatives genetic. The conclusion is that murder is the adaptation of predator avoidance whereas the Marxist theory is that it is the result of challenges for power.

Two evolutionary factors explain rape, firstly as a last resort reproductive option of men without consenting partners and secondly as a maladaptive side effect of male sexuality. Indeed different types of rapist fit into each category and some into both.

While it is probable that there is foundation in these evolutionary origins of crime, it is likely, as socialists argue, that these genetic inclinations combine with environmental provocation such as financial pressure, trauma and family problems to produce crime. However, credence must be paid to the EP theory as not all individuals who suffer environmental pressures commit crime and therefore genetic by-products may well be a sleeping ‘time-bomb’. If that is to be believed then current punishment programmes may not be appropriate for the serious criminal. It is a well known phenomena that inmates can suffer from ‘prison stress’ and those with genetic tendencies to react violently to outside pressures tend to re-offend within prison, an otherwise surprising fact as inmates know that bad behaviour will result in more punishment. One such example is Charles Bronson, Britain’s most notorious prisoner who although originally imprisoned for armed robbery his subsequent incarcerated offences, such as hostage taking, have resulted in a life imprisonment. However, some prisons such as HMP Grendon are successfully experimenting with ‘therapeutic communities’, which are less disciplined than ordinary prison, yet provide long-term specialist treatment.

Moving on to look at conflict within the family, for the purposes of this essay, concentration will be on EP studies on parent-offspring conflict. A parent is equally related to all of their children so attempts to treat all impartially. However, they must weigh up individual needs such as a sick or younger child is more dependent than an older healthy child. The EP theorist claims that discord arises because each child is 100% related to itself yet only 50% to its siblings and therefore believes it deserves maximal attention, even to sibling cost. The extreme result of this can be violence.

The second EP hostility scenario occurs between stepparents and children. Parental attachment is statistically only experienced by half of stepfathers and a quarter of stepmothers. Furthermore studies have revealed that stepchildren are up to 100 times more likely to be fatally abused than natural children. EP claims this is because natural children, only, stimulate the childcare modules, where the investment ensures a continuation of the genes. However, sociologists say domestic violence is a product of the love/hate relationships unique within families.

In conclusion, there is now too much evidence for the EP theorist to be ignored yet it unfortunately fails to answer some fundamental questions to convince the sceptics such as why do not all men kill, why do not all single, childless men rape and why are not all step-children abused? The most likely deduction is that genetic factors interact with environmental features to produce behavioural traits in some individuals, while others are able to ‘control’ their genes through higher levels of education and understanding.

998 words

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Buss, David. M. “Evolutionary Psychology, the New Science of the Mind.” Allyn & Bacon. Needham Heights. 1999.

“Charles Bronson tells of prison hell.” BBC News Online. 17th February 2000.

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Tooby, John and Leda Cosmides. “The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture.” Oxford University Press. Oxford. 1992.

University of Plymouth Department of Psychology. “Evolutionary Psychology.” SALMON (Study and Learning materials online). Online. Internet. www.salmon.

Psy.plym.ac.uk/year3/PSY339Evolutionary Psychology.

Wasserman, David and Robert Wachbroit. “Genetics and Criminal Behaviour.” Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 2001.

“What is Evolutionary Psychology?” Online. Internet. www.evoyage.com/ Whatis.html. (Accessed 08/10/01)

Charles Darwin (1809-82) “The Origin of Species” explained how human beings evolved from apes who in turn had evolved from others all sharing common multicellular organisms.

First discovered by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

James Watson (1916-) and Francis Crick (1928-) were the co-founders of the structure of DNA in 1953.

Jerry Fodor (b1935) “The Modularity of Mind”

John Tooby and Leda Cosmides

George Williams. “Adaptation and Natural Selection” (1966)

Kenneth Polk: “When Men Kill.”

Hammer and Copeland. “Living with our Genes.” 1999.

This is responsible for high sex drive.

Daly and Wilson. “Homicide.” Aldine de Guyler. New York. 1988.

Marx himself wrote very little about crime, it is subsequent authors such as Dutch criminologist Willem Bonger, who have given Marxist interpretations on violence. (Understanding Violent Crime- Stephen Jones)

Unlike murder most victims of rape are of child bearing age (SALMON-University of Plymouth)

Bronson has spent 21 years out of 26 in solitary confinement and has been moved 150 times (BBC News Online 17/2/00)

Originally jailed for seven years in 1974 for armed robbery (BBC News Online)

At Hull prison, in January 1999 Bronson tied a leather skipping rope around the neck of education officer, Philip Danielson, and held him captive for 44 hours. He was given a life sentence in February 2000 at Luton Crown Court. (BBC News Online)

HMP Grendon and Springhill, Grendon Underwood, Aylesbury, Bucks. Awarded ‘Beacon’ status September 2000 by the Secretary of State for Health, Alan Milburn, for its outstanding work in treating prisoners with personality disorders. (HM Prison Service News)

Offenders must already be in the prison system and can apply to transfer to Grendon. Their application is assessed by Grendon’s psychologists. (Understanding Violent Crime: Stephen Jones)

Offenders must discuss their crimes and are open to constant monitoring by their peers. “Inside the Criminal Mind.” Channel 5.

Trivers 1974 & 1985, Daly & Wilson 1988, Freud 1994 and Cartwright 2000.

A mother also has to weigh up her own health needs in order to carry on as carer (Clamp)

Temper tantrums, abuse, murder of one or both parents and occasional infanticide. Offspring killing is common in the animal kingdom but rare in the human race. However the same calculations are used in reaching that ultimate climax (including abortion) such as life expectation, high demand on resources and detriment to maternal well-being. (Desmond Morris)

It is said to be acceptable within the family to physically punish although it is prohibited outside of it.

A theory suggested by Richard Dawkins in the ‘Selfish Gene’.