Surprisingly, the feminist theory, in recent times, has shifted from a simplistic view that rape is motivated solely by a desire to dominate and not out of lust. Feminists instead claim that one must view the act of rape from the victim’s perspective and not the perspective of the perpetrator, and therefore their definition is extended to include rape as a sexual act; rape is sometimes considered sex from the victim’s perspective
Next, is the evolutionary theory which almost completely, contradicts the augments put forward by feminists.
Evolutionary theory states that there are two levels of behaviour causation: proximate and ultimate. Proximate causes of behaviour are temporary, immediate causes; and include the behaviour influence of genes, personality, physiology, and environmental stimuli. Proximate causes attempt to explain how these mechanisms lead to behaviour, while ultimate causes explain why the proximate causes exist in the first place (Thornhill and Palmer, 2000).
Adaptation is a phenotypic trait with a purposeful design created by past selection that rules out pure chance as a possible explanation for proximate behaviour. In each adaptation is a specific cause, or selected force, that created it (Thornhill and Palmer, 2000). In other words, adaptation is the means by which individuals eventually overcome environmental ‘obstacles which have affected them over long periods of time in evolution and caused directional selection. Adaptations therefore do not cause immediate increase reproductive success in present environments, and human behaviour is sometimes inadequately adapted to these existing environments. Some adaptations are specific sexual selections, which are a selection of traits which increase the quantity and quality of an individual's mates rather than the specific individual’s survival (Thornhill and Palmer, 2000).
In most species, including humans, males are typically more eager to mate than females. Females are then enabled to choose the best partner from among the males who are competing for them. In rape, however, the female is not given this opportunity to choose and instead is taken by force. This may have evolved from a difficulty in the reproductive success of males due to a female’s ability to choose. Because this obstacle may have been significant, males would have had selection pressures leading to an increase in access to mates (Thornhill and Palmer, 2000).
Further, there exists a large sexual irregularity in humans in that males need to make little reproductive effort to produce offspring. All that is required of a male is enough time to secure a mate and ejaculate, a process which has a relatively low energetic cost. For females, however, the minimum requirement is nine months of pregnancy, painful childbirth, and a period of lactation. As one can see, the scale of ‘favour’ is slightly tipped.
During evolution, this unevenness caused males who could mate with multiple partners to be favoured by sexual selection because they out-produced males who could not gain access to multiple females (Thornhill and Thornhill, 1992).
On the contrary, females have been sexually selected to secure a mate with whom they have bonded and can together be responsible for the offspring. Therefore, females have adapted to resist sexual intercourse with an un-bonded partner and to be more selective regarding their sexual partners (Thornhill and Thornhill, 1992). If females were selected to be willing to mate with any male under any circumstances, Thornhill and Palmer (2000) argue that rape would not occur.
The evolutionary theory of rape does not reject the notion that learning and socialization may play a role in rape. But it does posit that rape is the result of an adaptation to increase the likelihood of a male to pass on his genes- without obtaining a females approval. An adaptation is characterized by its evolutionary function, and the relationship between reproduction and the rape-adaptation hypothesis depends on the similarity of today’s environment with the environmental features that led to the selection that designed the adaptation.
The rape-adaptation hypothesis also does not assert that rape is heritable, but implies that males have psychological traits that are fixed and do not vary among the human gene pool.
In summary, there are currently two likely explanations for ultimate causes of human rape: First, since increasing female partners increases male reproductive success, it may be an adaptation that was directly favoured by selection. Secondly, it may instead be a by-product of other adaptations such as a sexual desire of males to have multiple partners without commitment.
Thirdly is the Biosocial (Synthesized) Theory. This theory of rape, posited by Lee Ellis (1989; 1991), merges the concepts of the effects of sex hormones on brain functioning to portions of evolutionary, feminist, and social learning theories of rape to form a biosocial theory (biological-social theory). This theory fuses the strengths of the other theories, while avoiding the weaknesses, to create a synthesized theory of why rape occurs. The theory rests on four main propositions:
- There are two drives which motivate most rapes (and other forms of sexual behaviour): a sex drive and a drive to possess and control;
The biosocial theory differs from the feminist and social learning theories by asserting that rape is largely a sexual act. This first proposition suggests that all sexually reproducing animals have an unlearned sex drive controlled by the limbic system of the brain. A second drive to possess and control is also exhibited in many animals, and this is directed towards numerous things in the environment, particularly food, water, and shelter, but including sexual partners and offspring. Primates also exhibit signs of possession and dominance, and it is documented that humans are extremely possessive toward one another in terms of mating behaviour. For human beings, the sex and possession/domination drives are closely linked, and both comprise the motivation behind all sexual behaviour. Domination and aggression are tactics rather than goals, a means towards a sexual end (Ellis, 1991).
- The actual techniques involved in most rapes are mainly learned, though not all males are equally likely to learn these techniques;
The second proposition suggests that the behaviour surrounding sexual coercion is learned, and that the major form of learning is experiential rather than imitative or attitudinal. Some males may be more disposed to rape behaviour than others genetically, but no male is a born rapist. Men learn to become rapists through shaping and successive approximation and women may play a role in shaping this behaviour. If females initially resist and then give in to a male’s pressure, he may later generalize that behaviour to other women and continue his actions.
- Evolution has selected males for readily learning methods of securing a large number of mates, including the use of deception and force;
This third proposition of the biosocial theory suggests that, due to natural selection, the sex drive of males is stronger than that of females. As a result, men are more likely than females to desire a large number of partners and will employ a wide variety of tactics to reach this goal. Females, on the other hand, have a tendency to prefer sex with a male with whom they have a committed relationship, where the male shares the responsibility of raising offspring (Ellis, 1991). Because men can pass on genes more readily than can women, they have more to gain by copulating with a large number of females. The stronger sex drive of men may be a result of natural selection and lead men to engage in coercive techniques with hesitant women, who are looking for an investment from potential mates in the raising of offspring.
- The variance in tendencies to rape can be explained at the level of brain functioning based on differing exposures to high regimens of androgens and other sex hormones.
The fourth proposition focuses on both the motivation and learning that lead to rape behaviours. It states that variations in exposure to male-typical sex hormones (neurohormones) cause individuals to vary in their sex drives and sensitivity to the threat of punishment and the suffering of others. Ellis (1989; 1991) suggests that testosterone affects brain processing in ways that alter the inclination to rape in terms of both motivation and learning. It may influence the strength of sex drive and the sensitivity of a person to the suffering of others.
Apart from these three main views/ theories, there are a few other voices that embrace and or add to the previous theories and one in particular who although not openly admitting it applies some parts of the previous theories to Jamaican men.
The first of these voices comes from an article by Cohen et al who state that rapists have various motives/ aims for their actions. They give three motives (clinical classifications of rape). Firstly there is an aggressive aim/ motive. Here the sexual behaviour of the rapist is not an expression of a sexual desire but rather a desire to ‘humiliate, dirty and defile the victim. The degree of violence varies from simple assault to brutal vicious attacks resulting on occasion in the victim’s death. The savagery of the act clearly denotes the aggressive intent.” The rapist describes his emotional state as anger. This anger, according to Cohen et al, was expressed on a substitute object while the real source of the rage was usually the mother or her representatives in the form of the wife or girlfriend. They often see women/ experience them as being hostile demanding unforgiving and as wanting them to accept passive components in the relationship- this they will not tolerate. Their victims are usually assertive active and independent women. Most of these men have a history which shows stability of work, high level skills and achievement with innovative and creative qualities. The work they do clearly shows their masculinity according to their cultural definition of the word. It is noted however that while they have successfully completed childhood, they experience during adolescence impairment in intellectual attainment and excessive, exaggerated masculine activity. It is also noted that nearly all of these men had a hyper-alertness to narcissistic injury and were self absorbed.
Secondly, is the sexual motive /aim. Here rape is driven by sexual desire and aggression is the ‘medium’ used to achieve the desire. The degree of aggressiveness varies, but usually there is a relative absence of violence and brutality. If the victim should struggle/ resist strongly- thus requiring more physical effort in order to be held- the offender will release her and run.
For the perpetrator here, rape is not an impulsive act as he has ‘lived it out’ quite often in his fantasies. Cohen et al states:
“It is a fantasy that is not only used in masturbation, but one that preoccupies him throughout his waking day and is composed in a relatively fixed pattern. In the fantasy the woman he attacks first protests and then submits more resignedly than willingly. During the sexual act he performs with great skill and she receives such intense pleasure that she falls in love with him and pleads with him to return.”
Cohen et al note that from early in adolescence he (the rapist) acted out in perverted ways. He was found to be voyeuristic fetishist and exhibitionistic. For him heterosexuality was only a fantasy and homosexuality, a desire which was intensely repressed. As he progressed through adolescence his guilt and shame in regards to his perversions with the need to defend them by the avoidance of homosexual wishes affected his peer relationships. He becomes shy, defective in social skills and effeminate with feelings of inadequacy and impotency.
His act of rape hence comes as an active defence against homosexual wishes. It also serves to relieve the shame and guilt of his perversions and to deny the feelings of being an impotent castrate.
The third and last, is sex-aggression diffusion. This motive is seen as an exception. Here the rapist is unable to experience sexual excitement without some degree of violence being present. Usually this violence takes place before and during intercourse; after intercourse however the violence ceases. His belief is that women liked to get roughed up and enjoy a good fight. This belief is maintained even when the victim if fighting for life. The victim’s resistance arouses in him aggressive feelings that become more intense and autonomous as his ‘sexual play’ continues. It should be noted here that his actions are not as a result of anger. Cohen et al (1977), state that “such men are similar to the psychopathic character. They tend to show the greatest degree of paranoid features and under certain conditions there are of psychotic condition”. Hence his actions seem to be somewhat the result of a mental condition.
Yet another voice comes from the text Crime and Criminology by Sue Titus Reid (2000)
“Groth and Birnbaum argue that sex is a motivating factor in some rapes, usually occurring between persons who had a pervious acquaintance, but sex is not the primary motivation for rape. In many cases, sex is not even a relevant variable. They analyse motivation for rape according to three categories: anger, power and sadism.
The anger rapist is expressing hostility, anger rage, contempt, hatred and other negative emotions, usually toward a significant woman in his life. The identity of the rape victim is insignificant; she could be any woman. Usually the rape is not planed and the victim is brutalised far beyond what is necessary to cause her submission. In the power rape, the perpetrator uses his power to force a woman into submission. This control is necessary for the male to cope with his own feelings of insecurity and inadequacy. For him the act is full of anxiety, excitement and anticipation. It is planned and preceded by sexual fantasies. The power rapist experiences little satisfaction during the attack; somewhat, his gratification comes from the power of committing the act. The sadistic rapist stalks his victim; he plans carefully and waits for the right moment to attack. He brutalises and tortures his victim. He may not have sexual intercourse with her; rather the rape occurs with a stick or bottle. The victim suffers severe injury and may die. Usually this type of rape is committed by a person who is mentally ill or under the influence of drugs.”
This last voice is the Jamaican representative, Joan French who addresses the issue of rape in her article No! To Sexual Violence.
French opens her article with the statistics of reported rape crimes in Jamaica. She stated that between 1979 and 1982 there was a 22% increase in reported rape crimes and carnal abuse. She goes on to state that pregnant mothers and old women are not speared this traumatic crime…
On exploring the matter, she looks at possible reasons why Jamaican men rape. According to French there are roughly six reasons why men rape:
- Men think they have a natural right to women’s bodies.
- Rape is used to punish women who reject the advances of certain men
- Rape is often committed as a “brawta” along with other acts of crime e.g.: robbery
- Many men rape children because they think they will get rid of VD if they have sex with a virgin. The smaller/ younger the child the surer one is that she is a virgin.
- Rape is a weapon in the class war. Women’s bodies become the battle field.
- Rape is a modem through which men take out their frustrations when they are unemployed, when their wages cannot stretch, or when they cannot get back at the boss who treats them badly.
French also throws out the evolutionary theory (also the feminist theory to a small extent) and somewhat embraces the biosocial theory when she says that “rapists are not born, they are made”. She states that males are influenced by the society: by its ‘teachings’; by television, other commercials and films: in the way they portray women; and by their music.
Lastly, French shows the common beliefs that men use to ‘justify’ rape:
- Rape is related to sexual desires. Men get excited and cannot control themselves that is why they rape.
- All women secretly want to be raped
- Women who walk on the streets at night are asking to be raped.
These three voices along with the three main theories have given several motivations (both conscious and unconscious) for rape. The question now is, in analysing these views; what is the main factor behind a man’s choice to rape?
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
Looking firstly at the three main theories, one can pinpoint a causal factor for two out of the three theories: self-esteem. The feminist view stated roughly _____ points, four of which showed low self esteem as the basis for rape. The first proposition from these theorists was that men used rape for power. That is in order to feel powerful man took advantage of the “weaker sex” – by force- using the only weapon which would cause the ultimate submission. If, maybe, he had seen himself as a powerful being regardless (i.e. had the confidence that his power was in his capability and could not be taken away from him) and had maintained that belief, he might not have resorted to rape as a means of safeguarding power. The apparent rise of a woman to power threatens his fragile self-esteem. This is confirmed by the second statement “men use rape as a process of intimidation”. Hence rape is the weapon used to protect his flailing ego. The third statement, “sexist attitudes lead to rape” shows what fuels this flame. In order to portray men as a macho image, the role and image of a woman is downplayed and even degraded. Here the man strengthens his esteem by being sexist and biased towards women. Rape is a weapon or tool used discrimination against women. The fourth proposition states that “rape is learned from socialization: attitudes, sex roles, emotions, perceptions and cognitions justifying male dominance”. Rape here is used to show and remind the woman “who’s boss. I men were socialized to think that sympathy, empathy, social gentleness etc. are attributes of the weaker sex and that weaker sex is at the bottom end of the hierarchical pyramid. This “weaker sex” should not attempt to move to equality (let alone power) any such move is punishable by discriminatory / prejudiced acts – which include rape.
It should be noted at this point that the male self esteem the basis, the onset for this problem. The way he perceives himself in comparison to the opposite sex (and even the same sex), and also how he allows the opposite and same sex to influence his perceptions of himself is a determining factor in rape – according to the feminist theory that is.
The Biosocial theory gives a twist to this in that it posits the sex drive as being an accompanying factor; but this then somewhat rules out self control. The Biosocial theory would therefore be stating that along with a low self-esteem men lack self control. This ‘theory’ becomes implausible when compared to the many other men who have not committed rape and have a low self esteem and would label all men as potential rapists simply awaiting the right situation. This then leads us back to self esteem.
The tree views that are presented after these main theories also provide evidence to low self-esteem – in a more detailed manner. Cohen et al* gives three motivations for rape; tow of which give testament to a low self esteem while the third posits mental disability as another factor to rape. The first motivation – aggressive aim – shows the man reacting out of anger at being ‘forced’ to feel worthless or rather at those how make him feel this way. In other words his anger is a result of the frustration of having a low self esteem. The second motive- the sexual motive- while to some extent embracing the Biosocial theory by stating that rape is driven by sexual desire and aggression is a means towards an end. But as it has already been established that this is implausible it will be dismissed. The second motive also shows rape as a being used in order to avoid homosexual wishes and to prove himself as not being an ‘impotent castrate’. In other words rape is used to defend masculinity and self esteem. Through rape self-esteem - where sexual intercourse is concerned - is lifted.
Sue Reid in Crime and Criminology (2000)* also has three similar categories of rape (or types of rapists) which show self esteem as a causal factor in rape. According to Reid, the power rapist rapes in order to cope with feelings of inadequacy and insecurity. Satisfaction for him comes from not the act itself but the power of committing the act. This demonstrates serious self-esteem problems. The anger rapist is very similar to Cohen et al’s aggressive aim rapist and shows the same motive. The last type of rapist, the sadistic rapist is that of a mentally ill person or someone operating under the influence of drugs.
It should be noted at this point that all these theories and views use American and European men as the basis of their study. Joan French in her article takes these views to Jamaican men- and comes out with similar results. For French, the Jamaican man’s motives for rape are:
- The woman’s resisting of the advances of young men. In other words rejection which in turn is linked to low self esteem. Had these men seen themselves as not ‘needing’ a woman’s attention to make them feel good about themselves or had they brushed off her response as being unimportant (the attribute of high self esteem) they might not have reacted in such a manner – rape here is not just on a one to one basis but also in gang rape (i.e. many to one)
- Rape is used as a weapon in class war. Lower-class men may rape because they feel jealous or threatened by the idea of a woman holding a higher social position than they presently do. Rape is a means of ‘bringing her down’. This is also a symptom of low self esteem. Upper class men rape in an effort to ‘flaunt’ their power and to keep women in their lower level positions. This also shows low self esteem as had they (men) felt secure about the social or economic position they held, they would not feel the need to ‘reinforce’ it in such a manner.
- Rape is a modem through which frustration is expressed. Here again the man sees himself as being unable to deal with a job situation; unable to live up to the expected bread winner title; unable to probably live up to the macho male status quo amongst his peers etc. the feelings of inadequacy in these areas often threaten to or spill over into home situation e.g. with the wife or girlfriend or even a female family member (incest). The straw that breaks the camel’s back is the fear of losing control or not being man enough in the one place he should feel this way- home. The danger of loosing self esteem here (which in a sense is almost gone) is too much to bear.
Taking all points and theories into account we see that there is it seems one ultimate motivator for rape – a low self esteem. This motivator seems to answer the question: what would be the real reason for a man to rape a woman? There are various excuses: “she was asking for it”; men need or want multiple sexual partners and he was poorly adapted sexually” she provoked hip to rape” but all these excuses can be countered. The fires not everything a woman “asks for” a man will give her. What then would make him think that this was one of the things she deserved to get? The second excuse that man wants multiple sexual partners is ludicrous. He can get that without raping as there are many females who seem to think the same way. Poor adaptation lowers man to the state of a wild animal being poorly tamed by society. Surely man is a rational being and not driven purely by instinct and urges. And the third excuse that he was provoked to rape proves that man is incapable of self control – this thought was previously thrown out the rational window. That leads us to more rational questions: would he rape her because he felt he had to prove his worth as a man ; is it because he felt sexually impotent or maybe simply because his self esteem was low and in order to lift himself he ‘pulled down’ the opposite sex in the worst possible way? The answer to this big question (especially the latter part) is yes!!
Having I identified the problem –the unconscious motive- the question remains how can we stop or lessen the frequency of this dilemma? Education and Realization. Educate the young men on their worth not just through teaching but through a hands on approach. Let them know that they are born leaders and that they do not need to pull others down in an effort elevate themselves. Educate the young women – especially all those young feminists- that the reality of the situation is that women were not made to lead men (look at their physical buildup) but to help men. Teach the men how to respect themselves and their female counterparts and vice versa for the females.
Is these things are done starting with the this generation there is a strong possibility that majority of the rape cases will be on a decline and the only problem left would be that of the influence of drugs on a man’s potential to rape. Bringing this unconscious motive to light will make it easier to reform rapists (knowing the reason for their behavior) thus ultimately re-establishing harmony between the sexes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ellis, L. (1989). Theories of rape: Inquiries into the causes of sexual aggression. NY: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
Chappell, D., Geis, R., Geis, G. (1977) Forcible Rape: The Crime, The Victim And The Offender. NY: Columbia University Press
Reid, S.T. (2000) Crime And Criminology 9th Ed.
French J. No! To Sexual Violence. Published by Sistren Theater Collective And Friends Of Sistren
Shannon (2001) Theories of Sexual Coercion: Evolutionary, Feminist, and Biosocial Perspectives. Retrieved October 05, 2005, from http://www.welcometobarbados.org/theories.html
Hilberman, E. (1976). Rape: The ultimate violation of the self. American Journal of Psychiatry,