Church of Women by Dorothy Hodgson
Nestia T. Gammon October 2, 2007 RS 373 Hackett Why Women? The Church of Women: Gendered Encounters between Maasai and Missionariesi investigates why more Maasai women than Maasai men have joined the Roman Catholic Church in Tanzania. Dorothy L. Hodgson, who is a professor in the department of anthropology at Rutgers University, analyzes mission journals, archives, and other historical documents and uses data from fieldwork she conducted in three Maasai communities, interviewing missionaries, catechists, women, and men. (Specifically, she interviews American missionaries, Tanzanian catechists, and 175 ordinary Maasai women and men.) Since she was living among the Maasai converts she studied, her primary method of research was participant-observation. She uses these pieces of historical and ethnographic evidence to examine how gender ideas and practices shape the ways of the encounter between Catholic missionaries and Maasai men and women since 1950. She begins by demolishing the generalization that the Maasai are nomadic people who do not mix with other tribes, stick to old customs, and refuse to modernize. The Maasai, she argues, share histories of migration with other Bantu peoples of sub-Saharan Africa; they mix with other tribes, exchange ideas, trade, and marry into other groups and change (6-13). The main questions posed by Hodgson within the book are, "Who
The Major Contributions of Psychological Theories to Our Understanding of the Causes of Crime.
The Development of Criminological Theory The Major Contributions of Psychological Theories to Our Understanding of the Causes of Crime. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth century criminological thought was centred around the work of the classical school and the work of Beccaria and Bentham. Their work mainly focused on the idea of crime being the result of free will and the effectiveness of punishment in reducing crime. In the late nineteenth century the positivist school was founded by Lombroso, and criminology was established as a new science. Lombroso believed that you could distinguish a criminal by their physical features. His work led to the emergence of psychological theories. (Garland, 1997). The first significant psychological theory that helps us understand the causes of crime is Freud's psychoanalytic model. Freud (1856-1939) states that the human personality has three sets of interacting forces: the id, the superego and the ego. (Hopkins Burke, 2001). The id contains the basic biological urges. The superego or the conscience is the part of our personality which produces feelings of guilt to punish us when we have done something wrong. (Gross, 1987). And the ego controls the individual by making decisions. (Lilly, Cullen and Ball, 1989). Freud's model was criticised as it was untestable. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2000). Both Freud and
The problems gone through by Professor Anderson in Trailblazing. The story presented went almost exactly how it was expected to go, it followed all theories on the subject and most of the people responded to his coming out of the closet
The ignorance of some people is amazing, truly astonishing at times; and not just of people you don't know. Your friends, your family, people you have known all your life can act in a way you never thought possible when confronted with something outside of their safety zone, something 'taboo', something that they've never actually sat down and thought about and was always silently taught was wrong; such as homosexuality. Someone you know all your life could pull a surprise turnaround when the topic of homosexuality comes up, especially when it's in relation to their children, which is exactly the problems gone through by Professor Anderson in Trailblazing. The story presented went almost exactly how it was expected to go, it followed all theories on the subject and most of the people responded to his coming out of the closet as stereotypically as possible; almost as if their responses had been scripted. It's no surprise that so many people acted they way they did when confronted with Professor Anderson coming out of the closet, he was seen as a challenge to an institution that had remained unchanged for many years. Professor Anderson's principal, who was initially very supportive, quickly turned on Anderson and seemed to be trying to get him fired at every possible opportunity. He must have been receiving daily complains from parents who could possibly tolerate the fact
The difference between kinship and stratification.
Kinship is social relationships that are prototypically derived from the universal human experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance. Mating refers to marriage and birth refers decent, but nurturance can be seen as closely related to mating and birth. In the U.S. it is called adoption, but each society has its own definition. Kinship is also a social organization, in which each society decides how it will be organized, what aspects of the 'human experiences' will be emphasized and which will not. Because each society uses different terms to refer to people they recognize as kin, anthropologists have found six major patterns of kinship terminology. These six patterns are based on how people refer to their cousins. These criteria include generation, sex, affinity, collaterality, bifurcation, relative age, and sex of linking relative. Generation refers to the kin terms that distinguish relatives according to the generation to which the relatives belong. Sex is used to differentiate kin such as in Spanish, primo refers to a male cousin and prima is a female cousin. Affinity is the distinction mad on the basis of connection through marriage. Collaterality is the distinction made between kin who are believed to be in a direct line and those who are 'off to one side,' linked to the Ego through a lineal relative (mother and aunt or father and uncle). Bifurcation is a distinction
How are bodies socially constructed?
How are bodies socially constructed? It is crucial to gain an understanding of what social construction is, in order to assess its influence on human bodies. However it is difficult to operationalise social construction in literal terms. Social construction encompasses a multitude of elements, Hacking (2002) notes, 'social construction is a kettle of many very different kinds of fish'. Typically however, social construction is concerned with the ways in which society has conceptualised ideals and expectations, looking at this in relation to specific areas of sociological interest. For sociologist when looking at the body their main concern is with 'the process of... transforming a biological entity through social action' Chris Shilling (2003). 'Members of a society construct their bodies in ways that comply with their gender status and accepted notions of masculinity and femininity. That is, they try to shape and use their bodies to conform to their culture's or racial ethnic group's expectations'. (Lorber and Martin 2005) This essay will look at the ways in which the body is a social construction, with particular focus on the extent in which individuals in society are willing to perform to socially constructed ideals. It is important to recognise that social construction of the body is a global phenomenon; however this essay will look at westernised social construction of
What do you regard as the main challenges presented to social policy by globalisation? How has the EU attempted to respond to this?
What do you regard as the main challenges presented to social policy by globalisation? How has the EU attempted to respond to this? Globalisation, in economic terms, relates to the opening up of markets to increase the flow of trade, capital and labour. For the EU, as a political and economic superpower, increased levels of influence over the member states welfare systems have been achieved due to a number of factors. The economic (EMU) and political criteria for membership into the union cause states to closely examine and possibly reform their welfare provisions. However, social policy decisions within the EU continue to reside at the national level as, currently, there are no means to directly tax EU citizens to provide for social welfare. The foremost challenge presented to European states by globalisation is the loss of sovereignty and the gradual convergence of all policy areas. Although the different types of European welfare state respond in very different ways, there is a general theme of retrenchment. High levels of social spending reduction and changing access rules to benefits, such as the raising of retirement age, all demonstrate the awareness of national governments concerning the effects of globalisation. The continually increasing level of market integration undermines the autonomy and sovereignty of the nation-state and it's welfare system (Leibfried and
Kohlberg's (1976) theory of morality argues that moral development is guided by cognitive needs and a wish to understand the reality of the world, in which there is a strong compulsion to conform.
A) Kohlberg's (1976) theory of morality argues that moral development is guided by cognitive needs and a wish to understand the reality of the world, in which there is a strong compulsion to conform. This theory, which suggests that we learn and construct our moral beliefs through social interaction, was introduced by Piaget, and expanded by Kohlberg using empirical evidence. Piaget felt that children will initially accept adult rules, since they appear to be unalterable, but will eventually see that society's rules can be discussed and changed. Kohlberg used this theory, and proposed three levels of moral reasoning, each of which has two stages. He argues that everyone proceeds through these stages in the same order, and also that progression is reliant on suitable levels of cognitive development, and for this reason not everyone reaches level 3. The levels are briefly outlined below: * Level 1- Preconventional- acceptance of adult standards due to lack of personal moral code, although the consequences of rules-breaking is accepted. * Level 2- Conventional- Morality can be judged from the point of view of the group or society to which one belongs. * Level 3- Postconventional- Rules are understood in terms of higher moral principles and the need for democratically agreed rules. However, Kohlberg also suggests that at the very highest point of level 3, individuals may feel
This paper will look at gender, class and ethnicity and show how these concepts relate to whether you are employed and given the chance to succeed within the work industry.
Introduction Gender, class and ethnicity may be significant factors that affect the decision elements in determining how individuals are treated and regulated in the workplace. Gender and class is a major determine in how individuals are employed and treated in the work place. Work is the carrying out of tasks, which enable people to make a living within the environment in which they find themselves. But in fact, it is very difficult to understand the nature of work and puts us in a poor position for better understanding the changing contemporary work. According to Tony J. Watson, "Work is basic to the ways in which human beings deal with the problems arising from the scarcity of resources available in the environment. The scarcity of resources in the world influences the patterns of conflict and competition, which arise between social groups. It follows from this that the social organization of work will reflect the basic power relationship of any particular society. But patterns of social relationships do not relate to power structure alone. They are also closely connected to patterns of meaning." (Watson 1995.113) Therefore, the ways in which people think and feel about work will closely relate to their wider political and religious doctrines and to their general cultural orientations. This paper will look at gender, class and ethnicity and show how these concepts
Critically compare and contrast the 'Hypodermic Model' of media effects theory with the 'Uses and Gratifications' approach.
Sociology of the Media Critically compare and contrast the 'Hypodermic Model' of media effects theory with the 'Uses and Gratifications' approach. Before it is possible to start an analysis of these two models, it is first essential to define them. The Hypodermic needle model, or the media effects model, is the earliest explanation of the way in which the mass media affects audiences. The basic premise is that whatever message the media (TV, radio or print) is giving, the audience will absorb it entirely and without question. This model views the media as a drug that is injected directly into the consciousness of the media consumer. According to Mick Underwood (The Hypodermic Needle Model) "The folk belief in the Hypodermic Needle Model was fuelled initially by the rapid growth of advertising from the late nineteenth century on, coupled with the practice of political propaganda and psychological warfare during World War I." The Hypodermic Needle Model treats the audience as passive; the couch potato is a product of the Hypodermic Model. The audience are a mass and do not have the capability of free thought, rather the audience tunes into the media and is transfixed by whatever is represented. This model gives rise to the Neo-Marxist quote "TV is the new opiate of the masses". The Uses and Gratifications model is more sophisticated in that it credits the audience
Provide a critical discussion of Herman and Chomsky's Propaganda Model
Provide a critical discussion of Herman and Chomsky's Propaganda Model. In 1988 Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky wrote their book titled 'Manufacturing consent: The political economy of the mass media'. Mass media plays such a dominant role in society as it can be seen to communicate ideas and transmit ideas about society's norms and values. Herman and Chomsky comment how in a world so full of conflicting class interests the media must present the views of the ruling class as societies collective thoughts. Further more, Herman and Chomsky view the media as something that not only serves the dominant elite but also show how private media is ultimately looking to make a profit, and therefore its ideas generally only appeal to the ruling elite it is interested in selling too. Herman and Chomsky use a 'propaganda model' as a framework for analysis for how the media in America is run. Herman and Chomsky use 5 categories in their analysis: ownership, advertising, sourcing, flak, and anti-communist ideology. These five ideas are seen as 'filters' that the media must pass through leaving 'only the cleaned residue fit to print' (Herman and Chomsky 1988: 2). Herman and Chomsky's model though can be criticised, and the following paragraphs will examine the first three categories in detail (as these are deemed the most important in the twenty first century) and how their ideas can be
