Alternatively the Equity theory was developed from work by Adams (1965), originally in the context of interpersonal relationships. The expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated to obtain what they consider a fair return for their efforts, rather than get as much as they can. Locke et al. (1981. p 126) “The main thrust of equity theory is that people are motivated to secure what they perceive to be a fair return for their efforts.” (A model of this both theories is shown in figure1.3 & 1.4 in the appendix)
Summary of perception
“Perception as a process can be described as a sequence of events from the receipt of a stimulus to the response to it”. (P:77 john martin) There is a number of ways to define the term perception which is usually formed throughout an individual’s life as a result of experiences and socialization which it have then been influenced by.
There are many factors that can effect perception for example halo effect, stearo typing and a person own individual circumstances can also effect his/her perceptual set.
Impacts of perception
Certain aspects of an individual’s perception can determine the effectiveness of Maslow’s approach. This theory does not however take in to account the ability of individuals to construct their own perceptions of needs and how they can be satisfied. In a real life scenario. I feel that most individuals will continually move up and down Maslow’s hierarchy theory to satisfy their needs, depending on how they perceive and value them, for example. If two individuals working in the same organisation, same department, similar education, however the fundamental difference being that one is married with 2 children, whereas his colleague is still single. Were approached to take over a new post in a new organisation offering a promotion and better career advancement opportunities, at their current salary. The likelihood is that the individual with the family is likely to refuse the offer on the basis that the extra burden of responsibility and extra hours that go hand in hand with a promotion, will undoubtedly be at the expense of spending less time with his family.
The influence of perception can limit the effectiveness of Herzberg’s two-factor theory. As Herzberg does not take in to account the vast differences that are evident between individuals and how they may perceive any given situation. For example close supervision has been classed as a hygiene factor, however not all individuals are likely to respond positively to closer supervision as some might find it intrusive and uncomfortable, which could then reduce the standard of work produced. Whereas other employees may find it acceptable.
Incorporating Locke’s Goal theory it is important to consider how different individuals will perceive a target related approach that this theory proposes. For example every individual will vary when in terms of his or her response when set a specific target or goal. Certain employees could well thrive in this type of environment as they are likely to be of a competitive by nature and therefore be motivated by being able to maximise their performance levels. However other employees may not be so inclined as they feel under pressure and also that it is not an effective measure of their overall job and therefore will not be motivated by constant targets being implemented. Another factor of perception that affects Locke’s goal theory would be the Halo effect, for example a manager may select a particular individual to become part of his team based on individual scoring charts at work, however assuming this individual can work just as well in a team.
The equity theory is also affected by how individual’s perception will determine what the individual perceives to be a fair days pay for a fair days work. However it is not always possible to define what exactly is a fair days pay, as different people have varying opinions for example, if two individuals had done a similar amount of work in the same period of time, the first individual could perceive a days wage as fair, while the other individual who completed the same work could feel that he deserves to be paid more, this is mainly due to the way he perceives the situation. This inevitably shows that each individual has their own perceptual differences that need to considered.
Summary of personality
“Personality consists of those relatively stable and enduring aspects of the individual which distinguish him from other people and at the same time, form the basis of our predictions concerning his future behaviour”. (Wright et al., 1970). “The personality characteristics of individuals influence the way that they predispose themselves to seek information from the environment”(Witkin et al., 1954).
However there is no simple definition of personality as it can be seen above, however the comment made by Wright is considered to be a common view. Personality can consist of a number of different factors for example from physical, mental, moral and social qualities of an individual.
Personality
Certain aspects of an individual’s personality can determine the effectiveness of Maslow’s approach. This theory does not however take into account the ability of individuals who have different personalities. For example if two individuals one whom is extrovert, the other who is introvert were given the opportunity to take on larger roles within an organisation. You will usually find that the extrovert individual thrives on the opportunity that has presented it self, he is also likely to be more confident in his ability to fulfil this role. Whilst the introvert individual is more likely to be a shy and quiet individual, who is not fully confident in his own ability. This is likely to reduce the chance of the introvert reaching self actualisation needs, as unlike with the extrovert person an introvert individual will likely need someone to open doors within an organisation to progress his career.
The influence of personality can limit the effectiveness of Herzberg’s two-factor theory. As Herzberg does not take in to account the vast differences that are evident between individuals and how they may react any given situation due to their personality. For example responsibility has been classed as a motivation factor, however not all individuals would class responsibility as a motivator and pursue roles of responsibility within a business, as they may have had bad experiences from previous jobs. The individual may have been threatened or even injured by a fellow member of staff who ignored their position of authority in the past. Therefore they may be reluctant to take over another role with additional responsibility.
In examining Locke’s Goal theory in relation to personality it is important to consider
how different individuals react to target related approaches this theory proposes,
for example every individual will vary in terms of their personality and will
therefore have different strengths or weaknesses based on their background. As
certain individuals will be far more adapt at working alone achieving their
individual goals. Whereas others individuals may be more effective when working
as part of a team in which they can pool their recourses and skills collectively to
achieve a departmental goal.
The equity theory is also affected by how individual’s personality will determine
what the individual perceives to be a fair days pay for a fair days work. However it
is not always possible to define what exactly is a fair days pay, as different people
have varying opinions, culture can have an important say to determine whether or not it is a fair days pay for example if comparing a man from the middle east to an individual from western Europe, you will find that the individual from the middle east is willing to work for less as work represent pride for himself and his family in his culture.
Conclusion
During this essay I have cited examples to highlight the impact that personality and
perception can have on content and process theories. It is crucial that businesses
realise the importance of personality and perception within the working environment.
Process and content theories attempt to categorise how individuals can be motivated
on a general scale rather than being specific.
The personality and perception of all employees cannot always be altered, as this is extremely difficult for large organisations that have a large work force. As many employees are likely to react differently to different approaches taken by management to motivate members of staff this is why effective but efficient methods have to be put into place. Ultimately businesses must accept that individuals can not be so easily categorised and therefore the approaches utilised have to be modified to take personality and perception into account in order maximise performance.
Appendix
Content theories
Self-
Actualisation
Self -esteem/
Esteem form others
Affiliation
Safety
Physiological
Herzberg’s two-factor theory (1974)
Process theories
Adams equity theory (1965)
Bibliography
Work psychology – understanding human behaviour in the work place
John Arnold, Ivan T Robertson, Cary L Cooper (first edition)
Psychology applied to work- 5th edition –Paul M. Muchinsky
Advanced business studies
References
Eugene Mckenna – (p: 92 Maslow) business psychology and organisational behaviour
(Students handbook third edition)
John Arnold, Cary L Cooper, Ivan T Robertson -Locke et al. (1981. p 126) page 257 – work psychology understanding behaviour in the workplace
Eugene McKenna - (Wright et al., 1970).page 28, business psychology and o organisational behaviour (student’s handbook third edition)
Thomson learning -john martin – p: 83-(witkin et al., 1954) organisational behaviour second edition,
Thompson learning - john martin –p: 77 organisational behaviour second edition
