Although, the meaning of ‘authentic’ culture depends on the context of cultural expressions. The expressions of tourists and natives have to be interpreted in a wider context of interests and creative actions. However perceptions vary cross-culturally becomes part of a wider discussion of tourist involvement in events around the world, Burns (1999, p. 33). According to McCabe (2005, p. 86) the tourist incorporates a range of ideas, images and knowledge about the world and predetermines a perception of what is to be expected for example the choreographed dance of the Ainu people in Japan is already confirmed through stereotypes of what is ‘‘native’’ and ‘‘exotic’’.
In relevance to anthropology, the interest arises in the relations between tourists and groups of hosts. The tourists can place demands on services performed by the host population, Nash (1999, p. 23) whereas MacCannell (1999, p.24) argue that in areas new to tourism the understanding can be limited with misunderstandings on cultural differences. Ultimately this can result to the loss of culture, Burns (1999, p.33) claims that the tourist industry is a quest for the illusion of authenticity through the experience of social and cultural simulation:
“The very existence of tourism rules out the possibility of authentic cultural experience.”
According to Taylor (2001, p. 9) the attempts to locate the original and ‘true’ Maori, New Zealand culture in “pre-European” past have been evident in a variety of social institutions, including museums, anthropology and tourism. The common link between the findings is the conception of time that has emerged. “Western thought has developed alongside ideas of sociocultural evolution.” This can suggest that although the culture has been preserved, it is just an interpretation that is primarily targeted to the western societies therefore over time has been commodified for attraction which has lost genuine value.
Technological development has grown rapidly since the 20th century for tourism. The environmental change is evident in both the supply environment and the changing nature of consumer behaviour, Cooper (2006, p. 47). This can be used as a competitive tool for the ‘host’ and ‘guest’ in the tourism industry as the knowledge can predetermine the system and value of the representation. The can ultimately ensure the tourist does not go anywhere real, hence the tourist bubble, Burns (1999). This suggests that with the broader understandings of what may be considered real, authentic or staged with promotion of technology information, it provides tourists to seek for more adventure.
O’Reilly (2006, p. 998) declares over the past few decades, independent travel has grown in popularity. Associating adventure tourism with young people who want to experience “freedom, personal development and fulfilment”, it has become part of education. Whereas, Cater (2006, p. 317) suggests that with adventure tourism is a rapidly expanding market segment it has contributed $220 billion annually to the US economy alone. To support, Eurostar (2011) high-speed passenger service, launched a new campaign “exploring is beautiful” to inspire travellers to explore Europe through connecting trains to city centre destinations. This shows that transportation links are becoming easier for tourists to explore, yet as a consequence this could suggest that adventure tourism is evolving into mass tourism.
The term ‘adventure’ can be associated with many people and images that connect with the imagination and emotions of the adventure experience, Swarbrooke et al (2003, p. 7). According to Buckley (2003, p. 8) the pressures of the market demand have commercialised adventure activities that have now evolved from hard to soft adventure in some destinations. For example, Brazil relies on the natural resources such as rivers, waterfalls, beaches, national parks/forests as a comparative advantage to strengthen their economy, ranked 58/ 139 in travel and tourism competitiveness report (see appendix: Figure 2 ). The activities such as canoeing and horse riding over ‘time’ have become more controlled as the growth and knowledge of tour guide/reps have placed limits on the extent of adventure, Filho (2009, p. 1)The social and technological changes are suggested to make it easier and cheaper to visit remote parts of the globe and reduce some risks. The soft adventurer is in some senses parallel with mass tourism as it appeals to novices and involves low risks. Whereas, the hard adventurer is required to have commitment and advanced skills and is more likely to be involved with physical activity, Buckley (2003, p. 9). This can put forward that the anthropology of knowledge may possibly be required in order to become more adventurous.
In contrast, Swarbrooke et al (2003, p. 36) displays the typology of adventure tourism is complex and “consumer and suppliers do not confine themselves to one category”. (See appendix: Figure 3). This suggests that the soft adventure tourists can be portrayed as more ‘independent’ and internationally seeking for the natural environment, whereas the hard adventure tourists seek for artificial and commercial which contradicts adventure tourist as evidently pursuing inauthentic destinations. Although the hard tourist striving for more wilderness as the soft tourist more urban.
Ingold (1992) suggests the term “urban beings” have evolved from technology and improvement from humans that have begun to change the way people perceive the environment, detaching them from their natural surroundings. Through such a perspective, physical activity as well as relaxing when in touch with nature can be vitally important to quality of life. This has led to a revaluation of some types of activities, especially those which bring humans closer to nature (Brown & Kasser, 2005; Watson & Landres, 1999).
According to Pearce (2005, p. 52) an adventure traveller will be motivated by intrinsic, self – satisfying goals and at other times motivated by extrinsic socially controlled rewards to visit a destination. So, by more destinations becoming available it widens the variety of intrinsic needs of adventure tourists. This can be identified in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (see appendix: Figure 4) citied in Reisinger, Y. (2009 p.272) it can be shown that people have a range of motives for seeking out holiday experiences. By analysing the different levels, especially the self-actualization and ego needs which relates back to Smith (2000) portraying adventure as high status, it can help to understand the motivation of adventure tourism in anthropology. The ego needs can be seen as the main factor if these are met. If they feel recognition and achievement, the judgment will be based on the interpretations between the host and guest as tourists.
As adventure tourism is an emerging field (O’Reilly 2006; Carter 2006) this can suggest that it has become a popular trend to pursue adventure worldwide. The increasing amount of tourism niches interlink with adventure activities (see appendix: Figure 5) gives the potential opportunities to expand on niche tourism adventure.
Culture tourism such as backpackers or spiritual tourists, reflect the origins of work on cultures through anthropology. McCabe (2005, p.87) claims the tradition of the study of isolated local communities has often set up an uneasy relationship with tourism and tourists, where their presence is seen as a threat to local identity. This shows the effect that cultural study of tourism can be seen as eroded by homogenous inauthentic, consumer culture.
Mintel (2009) state that special – interest and niche market travel has grown significantly in recent years where the key drivers have been the increase of multiple holiday taking and the expansion of lost-cost air travel:
“There is a growing demand for more active and diverse styles of holidaymaking amongst affluent, well-travelled segments of the population, particularly pre-/no family and post- family groups.” (see appendix: Figure 6)
This suggest the travel industry, operators and agents, have increasingly added value, up-sell and differentiate their products for different learning experiences.
“Short courses or activities embedded within a traditional, beach, touring or sightseeing type of holiday are the most likely way for specialist learning to penetrate the ‘mainstream’.”
The majority of travellers are pursuing ‘soft’ learning activities which supports Filho (2009) that mass tourist are evolving with soft adventures. Whereas Blom (2000) claims culture tourism focuses on ‘high status’ tourism such as ethic, eco, heritage and adventure.
Ethnic tourism which can be portrayed as marketing tourist attractions based on the indigenous populations way of life. However stereotyping may become a label for some ethnic populations. For example the marketing of Iban ‘‘headhunters’’ in Malaysia who are caught between the demands of tour operators and tourists, Selstad (2007, p. 27). This suggests the symbolic construction and ‘staged authenticity’ becomes commodified even for the niche of tourists on destinations that depend of tourism income. However, similarities can arise between anthropological fieldwork and adventure tourist experiences. As adventure tourists who are immersing themselves in the local culture, this can be comparable to the way anthropologist study the local behaviour and actions, McCabe (2005). This ultimately implies are there any differences between adventure tourists and explorers and do explorers still exist?
Explorers in the 15th/16th century such as Christopher Columbus can suggest that they were motivated by physiological and biological needs, Maslow (1943), to search for materials, labour and markets. However this resulted in colonialism. In the business of adventure and tourism in today’s society globalisation incorporates the product marketed to tourists that is cultural themed which suggests that explores are adventure tourists seeking cultural understandings. For example Jamaica is suggested to have developed a form of neo-colonialism as the country has attracted a trend and an increase of sex tourists, Jamaican Tourism Board (2010). In addition Mathieson & Wall (1994, p. 103) claim that tourism aids in neo-colonialism in certain economic conditions:
“…developing countries grow to depend on tourism as a means of securing revenue, a large proportion of expenditures and profits flow back to foreign investors and high leakages occur, non- locals are employed in professional and managerial positions.”
This can imply that future trends of tourism impact on how the destination interpreted, however this can often led to superiority of one culture overtaking another which determine political motives that relate to the early explores and the classification of tourism.
Overall, an important task in anthropology research is to explore the range of tourist experiences. The emphasis of the impact of mass tourism on host populations can be argued due to the interest of anthropologists in local studies. Therefore the views and experiences of tourists have major relevance for the anthropology of tourism. As development in technology have aided in the independence of tourists this can suggest that adventure has become a trend, although consequently destinations have become less authentic due the popularity. Paying attention to how tourists interact with their social surroundings can help anthropologists expand and refine the knowledge of what tourists see and do. The adventure role which involves the tourist in interaction with a wide variety of people can determine on the type of hard or soft adventurer, however the individual tourist must ultimately be considered. In a whole range of contexts, tourists are portrayed as second-class citizens McCabe (2005), the ambiguity of adventure and tourism overall portrays a complex entanglement which firmly poses the tourist experience as a topic for anthropological research.
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Appendixes
Figure 1: Comparison of Tourist Type Classifications 1977-2000
Source: Smith & Brent (2001)
Figure 2: Global Competitiveness Index – Brazil (2010-2011)
Source: Global Competitiveness Report (2011)
Figure 3: Dichotomies within adventure tourism
Source: Swarbrooke et al (2003, p. 36)
Figure 4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Source: Reisinger, (2009: p. 272)
Figure 5: Relationship between Activities Traditionally Associated with Adventure and Existing Forms of Niche Tourism
Source: Swarbrooke (2003, p. 17)
Figure 6: Learning on Holiday in the Past, April 2009 (Base: 2,001 adults aged 16+)
Source: GMI/Mintel (2009)
