Sibling relationships can be characterised with a number of emotions such as hostility, aggression and rivalry yet it is the emotional intensity present in these relationships that are key to the development of social understanding (Dunn & Kendrick, 1982). In the case of rivalry, siblings may battle for their parent’s attention becoming more jealous if one appears to get a larger amount. This can be difficult for the parents but it is a valuable opportunity for the children to learn the skills required to work out conflict on their own.
As highlighted previously, siblings can act as both a friend offering emotional support or as a guide or mentor. Dunn and Kendrick’s (1982) research into pretend play with siblings explored the idea of elder siblings acting as a teacher. Her research showed that older siblings will set role play instructions and the younger children will follow these making an important contribution to the play and enhancing their social skills.
In addition to familial relationships children will also build vital relationships with peers. As children mature they begin to spend more time with their peers, however it should be pointed out that the nature and meaning of friendships change as the children develop. As infants, children make friends with whoever is available, it is not an ongoing friendship and has little meaning and it is not until they are toddlers that they begin to interact and engage in more reciprocal play (Shaffer 2003).
The importance of peer interaction was also recognised by theorists such as Piaget (1896-1980) and Vygotsky (1896-1934). Piaget stated that peer to peer interaction was central to promoting a child’s cognitive development as children are likely to be on a more equal level with their peers and more prepared to challenge their thoughts rather than those of an authoritative adult. Believing that children were ego-centric, he suggested that these playful interactions provided the children with opportunities to resolve conflict, debate issues and consider others opinions.
Furthermore, Vygotsky (1896-1934) proposed that through play and interactions with more skilled peer’s children can build upon their skills and learn how to use psychological tools. He suggests that by collaborating with a more knowledgeable other, the less experienced child can learn ways to achieve tasks which they may not have been able to complete alone. This is further emphasised in studies by Brownell & Carriger (1999) who highlight that peers under 3 years have been shown to collaborate and alter their behaviour in order to accomplish tasks and goals.
Children’s interactions which take place during play can be studied through detailed transcripts of daily observations, however it is important to remember that researchers cannot recall every detail and the interpretation of the transcript may be biased and in the interests of the researcher. On the other hand transcripts such as ‘Fluffy the wonderful hamster’ (pg 112) which involved two 8 years old discussing a pretend story, can be invaluable in demonstrating that children can construct knowledge and develop understanding together through negotiation, discussion and debate.
There are two types of play which have been highlighted by Corsaro (1986) as influencing development. Socio-dramatic play is the term used when play involves acting out ‘real life’ domestic situations such as making a cup of tea, doing the ironing or even going to the dentist. Stone (1981) further explains that this type of play can be used as a rehearsal for future roles in adult life. Pretend play allows the child to imagine themselves in various roles, which in turn helps them to develop a sense of themselves as individuals and gain a better understanding of the world in which they live. In western societies this type of domestic play is more often associated with girls, who will mimic their mother cleaning up or cooking tea. However children’s play in other societies such as Malawi shows that boys will also take part in this type of play. Following a description of a game of ‘Law Courts’ it is clear the boys are using skilful imitation to mimic their fathers, and that the children have the ability to observe and give meaning to the adult world around them by playing out a previously experienced event.
Play can be used to explore fears, develop coping strategies and promote mutual support and trust between children (Corsaro 1986). Fantasy theme play is used to describe children playing in an imaginary situation which changes on every occasion, unlike socio dramatic play where play appears to follow a script. An example of this is provided in the ‘pretend play’ DVD (video 3 band 3, U212) which showed two girls who were on a boat but one girl fell overboard and could not swim. As children are often protected from knowledge of drowning and death these imaginary situations allow children to act out experiences and explore emotions which they are unfamiliar with.
Just as play provides children with the opportunity to develop their identity and gain a better understanding of their social world, play can also be a gendered experience. Girls usually look for close friendships which are more mutual and intimate than friendships between boys. Boys on the other hand are thought to play with whoever is nearby and the type of play which they engage in is competitive and aggressive, which helps them to achieve their masculine identity and power status (Pellegrini, 2003).
Play is not always a positive experience and can often involve arguments and brawls. Rough-and-tumble play and play fighting to a casual observer may appear like real fighting, but in play fighting the children will be smiling and laughing, contact will be controlled and when the fight has finished they will continue to play together. Still, there is a fine line between play and conflict and play fighting can certainly lead to real fighting. The transcript of Michael and Peters ‘Dracula’ game highlights this point when there is tension over Michael ‘shooting’ peter, however it appears Michael sensed the tension, conflict was avoided and play continued. In contrast Whiting & Edwards (1999) describe a play fight in a Mexican playground which turned into a real fight.
Whilst this may be a negative experience, this type of play will allow children to practise and develop important social skills and learn how to control their emotions and anger. Smith et al (1999) further emphasise that it is imperative that children learn appropriate communication skills and are able to understand signals to stop any conflict escalating to real fighting.
Fein’s (1984) transcript of Peter and Michaels Dracula game reveals that even at 3 years of age, children can negotiate their roles and easily make the transition between play and non-play. Psychologist Göncü’s (1998) explains that there are two types of communication evident in play situations and notes that there is a difference between the communication children use within play and communication about play, known as metacommunication. These skills are important as during pretend play behaviours may become misinterpreted and children must learn how to show they are still playing.
Despite the vast amount of evidence which suggests peer interactions play a vital role in children’s development the course DVD (Video Band 2) shows two young boys, William and Calvin, who have both for differing reasons, experienced their early years with limited peer interaction, yet both children have demonstrated that they have developed important social skills which they will require for any future relationships. Furthermore, as the majority of studies have taken place in western societies it is important not to over generalise findings. Different cultures hold their own values and beliefs which will directly affect peer interaction, for example in some cultures, elder siblings are required to go out and work all day leaving little time for any interaction to occur. Therefore it is important that developmental research takes into account the transactional relationship between the child and their environment as this will directly affect their development.
This essay has looked at the evidence to show that the interactions which occur between siblings and peers during play influences their development. Children will play together constantly and while they do not see it as a learning process, their interactions will play a vital role in promoting their cognitive, social and emotional development. It is through these interactions during play that children can make sense of the world around them, understand emotions and develop a sense of identity. However evidence has also revealed that although peer interactions are important, children can still develop vital social skills and healthy relationships despite having no peers or siblings, which shows that development may be subject to experience and it is important to take into account the social world which the child grows up in.
WORD COUNT 1849
REFERENCES
Bowlby (1896-1980), cited in Oates, Lewis and Lamb, (2005) pp 23-26
Brownell & Carriger (1999), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 119
Corsaro (1986), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pp117-118
Ding, S., Littleton, K., (2006) ‘Children’s Personal and Social Development’ Oxford, Blackwell/ The Open University
Dunn & Kendrick (1982), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pp 113-114
Fein’s (1984), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 99
Göncü’s (1998) cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 101
Harris (1995), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 95
Littleton, K. and Miell, D. (2005) ‘Children’s interactions: siblings and peers’, in Ding, S. and Littleton, K. (eds) Children’s Personal and Social Development, Oxford, Blackwell/The Open University.
Oates, Lewis and Lamb, (2005) ‘Parenting and attachment’, in Ding, S. and Littleton, K. (eds) Children’s Personal and Social Development, Oxford, Blackwell/The Open University.
Oates J., Sheehy, K., Wood, C., (2006) ‘Theories of Development’ in Oates, J., Wood, C., Grayson, A (2006) ‘Psychological Development and early Childhood’, Oxford, Blackwell/ The Open University
Oates, J., Wood, C., Grayson, A., (2006) ‘Psychological Development and Early Childhood’ Oxford, Blackwell/ The Open University
Open University (2006) ED209, Child Development, Video Band 2: ‘Zero to Hero’, The Open University
Open University (2006) U212, Understanding Childhood, Video 3 band 3; ‘Pretend Play’, The Open University
Pellegrini (2003), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 118
Piaget (1896-1980), cited in Oates, Sheehy and Wood (2005) pp 63-70
Schaffer (2003), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pp 96-98
Smith et al (1999), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pp 103-108
Stalker and Connors (2004), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 114
Stone (1981), cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 118
Vygotsky (1896-1934), cited in Oates, Sheehy and Wood (2005) pp 70-75
Whiting & Edwards (1999) cited in Littleton and Miell, (2005) pg 103
