However many other ethical considerations have to be taken into account when working with children. In addition to having an awareness of the ethical rights of children researches should always strive to advance and refine procedures and sharpen their own knowledge and skills. (Hays and Foley, 1998) In order to achieve research projects of a high quality they should be planned well in advance. Studies involving children have many characteristics in common with adult research. However consideration should always be given to a number of other factors when dealing with children. All independently funded studies involving children require that the researcher submit their proposed project to a committee to ascertain if it is ethically sound.
As aforementioned, children now have their own authoritative rights. Political acts and the United Nations Convention sanction these rights. Article 2 states “ a child has the right to participate in all matters which affect them ”. (Wyse 2004) Therefore it is essential to gain the prior consent of any child participating in research, particularly when employing qualitative methods. Difficulties can often arise in schools for children in exercising their consensual powers. Teachers can occasionally influence children into participating in research without directly requesting their consent. Thus it is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that the informed consent of all children participating is obtained. It is also necessary in some cases to explain that non-participation will not get them into trouble. In addition researchers must be cautious not to unintentionally exclude certain children. For example it may be difficult to include less accessible groups such as those who do not attend certain services or organisations. Moreover for convenience reasons less confident and inarticulate children may be excluded as a result of communication difficulties. In order to produce high standard research, a project should involve even the most inaccessible groups. In addition to gaining the child’s consent it is also essential to obtain parental consent. (Hollman in Matthews) It is also crucial that children are given the opportunity to make a private decision on whether or not to participate. If this is not the case the child may feel obliged to participate as a result of pressure from the researcher, teachers, parents, peers and youth workers. (Matthews and Tucker, 2000)
Another major ethical factor that must be considered is confidentiality. It is essential that all data collected is anonymous. All children’s names and addresses should be changed when mentioned in research. Moreover participants should be made aware of who will be examining their views. Employing quantitative methods, such as questionnaires, will lessen the likelihood of breaching confidentiality. Moreover, to ensure confidentiality, all data and information gathered for the project should be stored in a safe secure location. Furthermore it has been suggested that in order to achieve ethically sound material the research to some extent should be directly or indirectly beneficial to the children involved. The best results for achieving this come from studies where children are directly involved in planning and producing research. However as high levels of participant involvement requires a superior knowledge of the research process most studies opt for lower participant involvement. (Wyse 2004)
Researchers must be cautious not to allow their own ethics and values to influence research. It is essential that the researcher remains objective throughout the project. The funding behind the research can also have an effect on the findings of the project. For example government-funded research may have certain political agendas to fulfil, whereas independently funded studies will have a different angle. Moreover it is also important to establish that children have a suitable level of understanding about the research. The researcher must take into account the child’s cognitive developmental stage and explain the project accordingly at an appropriate level for the child to understand.
There are various methods employed by researchers to collect data and information when studying children. It is crucial that the design and planning of research is appropriate for the purpose of the proposed study. (Chritensen and James, 2000) There is normally a distinction made between the two main methods of data collecting the quantitative and the qualitative. The former approach, also known as the positivist approach, involves the use of closed questions normally in the format of survey questionnaires. This method is most commonly used in large-scale projects for gathering statistics and facts. The latter approach is the most common procedure used when researching children. This procedure consists of open-ended in- depth questions emphasising words rather than quantification. This is achieved both individually and in-group settings (Wyse, 2004).
Observation is another method used in the study of children. There are four different techniques commonly employed when observing children. Firstly there is unstructured observation. This technique involves recording children’s conversations, activities and other interactions. Secondly there is structured observation, similar to unstructured observation in that reports of the children’s activities are recorded. However unlike unstructured observation this approach is not continuous. Instead the activities are recorded intermittently throughout the project. The third observational method ‘interactive’ or ‘participant’ requires the researcher to take part in the experiences they are researching. The objective of the researcher is to achieve invisibility and blend in with the participants, thus reducing the possibility of influencing the children’s activities. Finally there is non-interactive observation where the researcher observes the children but does not participate, only monitoring and recording information. Visual methods for researching children are also very common. There are various techniques adopted in this approach. Mapping can be very effective in providing information and assisting in provoking discussions. Alternative visual methods such as photography, drawing and designing a poster are all useful in the study of children. They assist the researcher in gaining some helpful insights into participant’s perceptions and experiences of their environment (Mattthews and Tucker, 2000).
The increasing lack of independent mobility in children has generated a number of studies. However the majority of this research tends to link independent mobility with road traffic dangers. The most notable research in this area is the work of Hillman et al (1990). This study used quantitative techniques to gather research. The objective of the research was to establish if road traffic accidents revealed an accurate account of road safety. In addition researchers wanted to discover if parental constraints on children’s independent mobility over the last two decades was a consequence of the perceived fears of parents. Systematic quantitative questionnaire surveys were distributed to groups in Britain and Germany. Due to the nature of the study the quantitative approach was probably the most suitable for gathering the information. However the study makes no reference to the children or parents giving their consent but rather seems to suggest that all children in the school participated without choice. Moreover as a result of time restrictions the children had only a limited time to complete the questionnaire. However overall the study is largely successful in that it has chosen the correct methodological approach and for the most part demonstrates good ethical practice.
The research of O’Brien et al (2000), unlike the previous study, does not focus entirely on the connection between independent mobility and road traffic dangers. This study examines the mobility of children in public spaces focusing on the boundary limits of their movements. The first part of the study collected data from quantitative questionnaires distributed to subjects in London and the new town of Halfield. Halfield is located approximately 40 kilometres from London and was designed, in part to accommodate children, providing them with a suitable environment. The second part of the research consisted of focus groups, parent and child interviews, walk-throughs, mapping techniques and visual methods. The study has used a wide range of research methods to obtain information and data, thus an indication of thorough and well thought out preparation and planning. However, as with most methods, there are strengths and disadvantages. Focus groups are beneficial in that they create an informal environment for children to express their views and can also trigger discussions. However the inevitability of peer pressure is a factor which should be considered in group settings. Children may express certain opinions, which are not necessarily their own individual views. Rather they will say what they believe the group wants them to say. Moreover less confident children are unlikely to talk in a group and there is the added possibility of confident articulate children dominating the discussions. Other ethical considerations such as the lack of assured privacy and confidentiality are also factors (Matthews et al, 1998).
The second part of the study also employed visual methods to collect information. This technique has proved extremely successful in previous studies. For example Matthews and Limb (1996) had initially planned to use in-depth discussion groups as the main method for collecting information. However after a week the researchers noticed that the discussion groups were not running successfully. Some of the less articulate children had difficulties in conveying their views and felt intimidated by the fact that they were being tape-recorded. Many others attempted to disrupt the group by making distracting sounds whilst being recorded. It became clear to the researchers that they should use an alternative approach. This example demonstrates the importance of employing the correct methodology. Allowing children to ‘voice’ their views and opinions is regarded as one of the highest degrees/forms of empowerment (Croft and Beresford, 1990, 1993). However this type of communication is also slightly adultist. The use of qualitative methods such as in-depth discussion groups can often result in the other various ways in which children express themselves being overlooked. In-depth discussion groups frequently neglect the more expressive forms of communication children use such as music, activity, art and drama. As a result of the lack of progress in discussion groups researchers opted to use visual methods (photographs and drawings) instead. This proved highly successful and as well as directly involving the children in the research also made participating more interesting and stimulating. Thus this example demonstrates that it is crucial to ensure the correct methodology is employed when researching children. Visual methods involving the use of photographs have the disadvantage of being costly and time consuming. Children will frequently need to be trained in operating the camera. Moreover there is also the added possibility that children will break, lose or even steal the camera. However in the case of visual techniques the strengths certainly outweigh the disadvantages. This method directly involves children, giving them an element of control in the research. The use of pictures will visually stimulate children, prompting reflection, creative thoughts and discussions. Moreover visual techniques are not solely dependent on verbal abilities, thus preventing the exclusion of less articulate children (Matthews and Tucker, 2000).
In conclusion it has been shown that many ethical and methodological complexities arise when researching children. This paper firstly highlighted how progress in the political and social world has had a noticeable effect on contemporary research practices. It was shown that such positive political developments have resulted in children being recognised as legitimate individuals who possess their own authoritative rights. Secondly, the essay also discussed the increase in awareness of ethically and methodologically sound research practices. The growing number of studies involving children has in turn provoked an increase in ethical and methodological literature. Thirdly, this paper also emphasised many of the ethical considerations, which have to be taken into account when working with children. Moreover, some of the most common child centred methodologies, frequently employed when studying children, were identified. Finally it was found that the vast majority of contemporary research on children is, for the most part, ethically and methodologically robust. However it would be incorrect to suggest that developments in research practices have resulted in complete ethical and methodological perfection. No research project can ever be completely perfect, as it will always be hampered by restrictions on time and financial resources.
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