With reference to two religions discussed in the From Sacred Text to Internet(TM) explore the ways in which technological innovations have affected representations of religion.

AD317 - TMA 02

Kuo-Ching Patricia Lin

R2987092

Question 2

With reference to two religions discussed in the ‘From Sacred Text to Internet’ explore the ways in which technological innovations have affected representations of religion.

Introduction

A question this complex can easily be misinterpreted, hence this discussion has been broken down into several distinctive areas. Initially definitions of what representation and presentation are as well as a comparison between the two terminology’s will be made. The next part will focus on new technological innovations available and the effects that these have had on the representation of the religions such as Christianity and Hinduism. Finally a discussion on the traditional representation and ‘new’ emerging religions will be entered and how these have led to changes in religious beliefs through both the differences and uniformity of distinctive religions.

Representation

Representation is a multifaceted awareness that requires an appreciation of core beliefs associated with a religion. How religions are represented is dependent on the means for communication used to relay their beliefs and how those involved with passing the beliefs on, give consideration to the personal perspectives of the audience. There are fundamental differences between the many religions and how individuals and society understand and comprehend what ‘message’ they have been exposed to.

Some religions believe that there is one ultimate supreme entity which countless people may call ‘God’ and whom, it is believed, chooses to have limited interaction with humanity and only converses with the selected messengers. There are other religions that believe in a ubiquitous uncongenial certainty that the individual must achieve absolute self-understanding through an awareness of dissecting one’s self. There are also those religions that bring together characteristics from both forms. It is important to be aware of the supercilious agenda of traditional religions and their propensity to declare themselves the ‘ultimate’ religion. This propensity plays an important role in communicating what they represent, their philosophy and how they are presented.

Presentation

Presentation is how an ideology, concept or theory is presented to others, either individually or collectively, on a local or global scale. There will also be a differentiation in the presentation when the religion is presented to either its own members or those of the outside world. This may be conveyed through text, images, symbols, iconic monuments, statues, rituals, institutions and schools. No one religion will use just one of these mediums but rather an assortment of mediums to differing extents.

Technological Innovation

Technological innovation has a tremendous influence on the method in which religions present, maintain and broadcast their knowledge and tradition. Importantly the form of transmission will also differ in societies that are more or less technologically developed. Technological developments in the 21st century have helped to develop dedicated single interest channels on Satellite/cable TV, radio and the . These channels assist in lowering the barriers of distance and cost of ‘broadcasting’ their message by providing the means for humans to interact on a global scale. While television/radio has broadcasting regulators, the Internet is ‘unregulated’ and its transnational character has ...

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Technological Innovation

It the hotbed of religious ‘strength’ in North America in late 1959, the proto-type Internet was first developed and for 10 years this service was solely used by Americans. It took until the early 1970’s to finally open this up for other countries, however at this time it was still ‘dominated by users in North America’. (Beckerlegge, 2004, p.220). This trend has continued and most of the technological advancements today are first used by America religious entrepreneurs (cheque book evangilists).

The Internet has presented a modern electronic vehicle that seemingly may become as essential in the future developments of religious communities as writing, printing and television. This point was made Jackson when he stated that ‘Whereas other forms of communication have involved laborious investment in ‘pushing out’ information, a web site on the Internet with relatively low maintenance allows others ‘pull in’ the information they want’.’ (Jackson, 1998, p.5) This saves valuable time, effort and cost.

Christianity

Internationally, over the years, there has been much discussion on how Jesus should be portrayed which has depended on the global location of who is talking, writing and drawing the images. The portrayal of Jesus is also dependant on where research information i.e. statistics, has been gathered from (who, what, why this information has been produced) and this will also influence the outcome. It is also important to note the influence that North America has when ‘in 1997 of the world’s five most influential religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism) 80 per cent were Christian’ (Zaleski, 1997, p.99). Although research shows the contrary, Americans state that Christianity is not on the wane, however the rest of the world, apart from Ireland and Poland, has shown a fall in the popularity of Christianity.

Visual broadcasting does still have a large influence on the global population derived ultimately from fictional television, usually ‘ from this we register at various levels of our minds the status of police, cabinet minister..; we learn to judge the relative measures of respect we offer to soldiers, priests...’(Smith, 1994:4). As was highlighted in the release of the film ‘Passion of the Christ’(Gibson, film 2003) when many of the Christian churches in both America and England offered the general public free cinema tickets to view this film, in the hope to promote their religion.

In an attempt to re-promote Christianity film producer Martin Scorsese produced the film ‘The Gospel according to St Matthew’ in the hope ‘to make the life of Jesus immediate and accessible to people who haven’t really thought about God for a long time’ (Thompson and Christie 1989:124). But programs/films are only accessible to those who have the facilities to access these broadcasts.

An increased availability of Christian programs on terrestrial television and dedicated channels on satellite/cable television and the Internet have assisted people to worship in their own homes rather than attend church services. Furthermore without a demand for such services it would not be financially wise or feasible in the long term to provide these resources for worship. Which is shown by those unable to visit church services continuing their worship because of the television and internet.

Hinduism

Before British rule, Hinduism was confined to India and its surrounding neighbours, however at the time the British Empire brought with it technological innovations that assisted in the communication process. The production of printed assisted Hinduism to promote itself and books changed ‘the circulation of knowledge and thus the ways in which religious groups would communicate in the future’. (Beckerlegge, 2001, Pg.68) Again in the 20th century, electronic communication has also helped facilitate it to become a global practised religion.

The production of India art that was originally only affordable to the wealthy, but as technology changed with regards to the manufacture of paper and printing, poorer potential customers were able to access these religious symbols. The technology also implemented mass production, which introduced changes, and the characters were transformed, not merely due to the foreign influences, technologies and markets, but also because of the escalating importance of secular subjects. These changes in accessibility haven’t been without there problems, as changes in the style of India art have found ‘echoes in judgements made about the religion of modern Hinduism’ (Beckerlegge, 2001, p. 72) and some would suggest undermined the belief. However there is evidence to show that ‘Hindus have been quick to assimilate new materials and media with long-established but far from uniform and rigid understandings of the status and power of the murti’ .(Beckerlegge, 2001, p.108), therefore strengthening the belief.

New Religions

The phrase ‘new religious movement’ is fraught with definitional problems, as there are many religions pigeonholed in this way that have a long history of beliefs and practices. They are now presented by new organisations and in modern ways and as such their ‘newness’ is received with negativity. Examples include the new forms of socio-religious organizations, namely cyberSanghas and cyberchurches that have also provoked much deliberation as to their benefits and costs, ‘their growth has not constituted a challenge to the core vision of the religions involved.’ (Beckerlegge 2001 p.257). As a consequence of the developments science has made, links have now been forged with particular religions promoting that the division between science and religion are narrowing and with all the technological advances in the future these will eventually become one.

Conclusion

In conclusion representation is to take a concept that is a visual or tangible interpretation of someone or something, whilst deliberating the intention of those disseminating the information to others. Presentation is the sensory manifestation of information. This may be in any form of tactile, auditory or visual stimuli and can be static or dynamic. Simply deciphering the two, representation is what is being communicated while presentation is how it is communicated.

There has been much technological advancement in global communications, with the Internet currently growing in popularity as it allows anybody no matter what social standing, gender, age, sexuality, and religion to advertise their beliefs. The only constraints to accessing the internet with a computer are the mandatory software and connection to the Internet. Creating personal websites has influenced others to create their own personal sites these being available for all to view. Therefore all Internet users must be aware of accuracy of the information that is published as it may be out of date, unreliable or manipulated for the benefit of the author.

The Internet is almost entirely free from effective regulations and this has enabled any religious group to pursue any agenda without impediment. Notably a ‘ person who enters cyberspace, the cybernaut, takes on a virtual self, often with a different name for the purposes of logging on to the computer or using e-mail – a ‘cyberidentity’ whose relationship to the person’s real identity is again intriguing, especially if the anonymity and freedom of the Internet allows a different character to emerge’ (Beaudion, 1998, p.134). This highlights the caution that must be taken when using the Internet.

There are many reasons as to why the Internet will continue to be used to promote religious messages in the future, due to people having limited time, energy and ability to travel. It has also assisted worshippers to preserve their private space. As well as anonymity, global communication and cheap advertisements it has been suggested that some ‘people may be ashamed to admit they belong to a private prayer group....It seems easier for people to establish that sense of trust on-line’ (Busch, 1999, p.24). To end with a quote ‘because religion is so embedded in social life’ (Lundby and Hoover, 1997, p.308) it will continue to change and adapt as evidence shows that it has in the past. It will continue to modify and develop to strengthen the community that it supports and will make continued contributions to promote the further privatisation of religion that has also been a characteristic of this modern period.

(1963 words)

References

Beaudion, T. (1998) Virtual Faith: The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Generation X, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Beckerlegge,G. (2001) Religion Today: Tradition, Modernity and Change. From Sacred Text to Internet, Ashgate: The Open University.

Busch, A. (1999) ‘New-time religion’, Interiors, vol.158, no.12,pp.24-5.

Gibson M (2003) film, The Passion of Christ

Jackson, R. (1998) ‘World Wide What?,’ Church Growth, vol.13,no.2,pp.3-5.

Lundby, K. And Hoover, S. (1997) ‘Summary remarks: mediated religion’, in S. Hoover and K. Lundby (eds) Rethinking Media, Religion, and Culture, London: Thousand Oaks/New Delhi: Sage.

Smith, A. (1995) (ed) Television: an international history. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Thompson, D. And Christie, I. (eds) 1989: Scorsese on Scorsese (Faber).

Zaleski, J. (1997) The Soul of Cyberspace: How New Technology Is Changing Our Spiritual Lives, New York: HarperCollins.