Women at work

Women at Work

By: Djurdjica (Lily) Ivkovic and Kamalika Barua

Course Code: CIA 4U1

Teacher: Mr. Eskedjian

Due Date: January, 15, 2009

Women and Work

Throughout the 20th century women have had to fight harder to get ahead in the male owned workplace. With obstacles such as discrimination, lower wages, and the lack of management positions, it’s hard for women to compete with men. Women of work is one of the important topics to discuss about, from day to day people don’t realize many obstacles that women faced. This report will further outline the history of women which will help us understand the past. It will focus on the changes many women faced throughout the centuries as well as it will discuss women’s work in other countries and ways of overcoming these obstacles.

History

Women’s paid work in the nineteenth century

Until confederation, Canada was a sparsely populated colony whose economy was based on farming, fishing, lumbering and fur trading (Wilson). Ontario and Quebec were the first to industrialize (Wilson). Both men and women earned money to buy things the family did not produce themselves (Wilson). Farmers earned seasonal income in fur trade, lumbering, or fishing; their wives sold or exchanged any extra vegetables, butter, cheese, eggs etc (Duby). Unmarried daughters, some widows and some married women worked in homes of wealthier neighbors if their labour was not needed at home (Duby). As Canada became more urbanized and more industrialized, home production declined with it women’s economic contribution to the household (Women in the). Last half of nineteenth century created opportunities for paid employment for men and some single women (Wilson). In urban areas there were more employment opportunities for single women, and increasing number of whom worked until marriage. In 1921, 70% of working women were between the ages of 14-24 years old (Wilson). The majority of the employed single women worked in domestic services until well into the twentieth century (Women in the). In the last half of the 19th century, an increasing number of single women worked in manufacturing and a significant number were teachers (Wilson). Factory work was preferable to domestic service because it gave women more freedom. Later, as clerical sales opportunities expanded, single women moved into these jobs as well (Women in the). Otherwise employment opportunities for women were very narrow (Wilson). Low salaries were justified because women worked in unskilled jobs and because their employment was a short-term interlude before marriage (Women in the). Wherever women worked, they earned less than 60 % of men earned even when, as often the case, they worked longer hours (Wilson).

Twentieth Century

The early years of the twentieth century were the prosperous ones in Canada. Inventions such as the telephone, and automobile changed the nature of urban life (Wilson). Labour market expanded and number of women in the labour force climbed as more women were recruited to clerical and sales jobs (Wilson). Prosperity of this period ended just before World War One, when the Canadian economic recession war broke out. According to 1916 Ontario Commission on Unemployment, there was an estimate of eight to ten thousand unemployed women in Ontario in 1914 and 1915 (Wilson). It was not until the 1916 that it became necessary to actively employ women (Wilson). During the later half of the war, the demand for women was temporary in mostly occupation such as office work and light factory (Wilson). Some women worked in munitions but this was an exception not a rule (Wilson). Employers used the war as an excuse to lengthen the working day for both men and women, however wages were low for all workers but women were paid less than men (Wilson). Following the war, Canada experienced another period of prosperity before depression of 1930’s (Wilson). Clerical sales work began to overtake domestic service or manufacturing as the most suitable job for women (Wilson). By 1931, half of all employed women worked in service or clerical jobs (Wilson). On the surface it seemed that employment opportunities for women expanded but domestic service was still leading the job category, and whatever work women did, they received less pay than men (Wilson). Furthermore without the access of training or education, women worked in jobs that were either natural extensions of their home making in nurturing skills or that were rapidly expanding and in need of inexpensive labour pool (Wilson). The strongest motivation to hire women was that they were cheap. In 1891, the ten leading female occupations were servant, dress maker, teacher, farmer, seem stress, tailoress, sales women, housekeeper, laundress, and milliner (Wilson).

World War I (1914-1918)

The start of World War I changed the role of women in the labour market, especially after 1915 when thousands of young men were called up for military service (Women’s rights). Because of a shortage of factory workers, women, especially single women, were called on to fill the void (Women’s rights). There was also a huge increase in the number of women working in offices and in sales, as they replaced men transferred to the war industries. Women were an essential component of the Canadian workforce during wartime (Women’s rights).

The post-war period and the Great Depression

With the return of large numbers of men after the war, women were encouraged to return home and give up their places in the factories (Women’s rights). However, the attitude toward working women had changed. It was now deemed acceptable for a young woman to work until she married, since her wages could help with the family's expenses (Women’s rights). Women's presence in the workforce was tolerated as long as they did not try to take jobs normally held by men. They were strongly encouraged to hold so-called "women's" jobs (Women’s rights).

In 1921, 17.7% of women 14 years and older were part of the labour force, accounting for 17% of the total workforce, mainly in office work. In the early 1920s, girls had access to the education system, except for higher education, on the same basis as boys (Women’s rights).

The economic crisis in the 1930s did little to help the cause of women (Women’s rights). In 1931, 19.4% of women aged 14 years and older were part of the labour force, representing 18.6% of the total labour force (Women’s rights). In some cases, they were the sole support of their families when their husbands were forced into unemployment (Women’s rights).

World War II (1939-1945)

When Canada joined the Second World War in 1939, female labour was needed to keep production going in factories, shipyards and munitions plants as more and more men enlisted in the army (Women’s rights). At first only single women were employed (Women’s rights). As the demands of wartime production grew, childless married women, and then, women with children were also employed (Women’s rights). Incentives such as day care and tax breaks were used in an effort to get women into the labour market (Women’s rights). Women were also needed in the army so that more men could be released for combat duty. Although women were never conscripted, they were encouraged to volunteer in support services and nursing. Without their contribution, the Canadian economy would not have been sustained (Women’s rights). This second major world conflict further raised awareness among Canadians of the important contributions women made outside the home and challenged preconceived ideas about the inability of women to take on so-called "men's" jobs (Women in). It also gave many women temporary financial and personal independence, and made married women realize that they could work outside the home without neglecting their children (Women in).

Because of the absence of many men who either joined the military or took jobs in war production industries, some women moved outside their traditional roles and took positions in jobs usually reserved for men (Women in). Propaganda posters with images like "Rosie the Riveter" promoted the idea that it was patriotic for women to work in non-traditional jobs (Women in). As one example in the American shipbuilding industry, where women had been excluded from almost all jobs except a few office jobs before the war, women's presence went to over 9% of the workforce during the war (Women in). ...

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At the end of the war, women were told it was their patriotic duty to leave the work force in order to make room for men returning from military service (Women in). Various forms of pressure were put on women to quit their jobs, from ending government sponsored facilities for child care and tax concessions granted to married women, to forced layoffs (Women in). Married women were clearly expected to return home and single women were expected to marry and make a home to raise their children (Women in). This was a period of renewed appreciation for women in the home, driven by media propaganda about the joys of domestic life and of femininity (Women in).

The place of married women in the workforce grew in intensity. In 1951, slightly less than one-quarter 24% of women aged 15 years and older were part of the labour force, representing 22% of the total workforce (Women’s rights). On December 1960, a contraceptive pill became available. However the distribution of information on methods of contraception and their prescription continued to be illegal until 1969, the appearance of "the pill" radically changed the lifestyle of women (Women in). It offered them a better standard of living and greater control over birth planning so that, among other things, they could continue to work or to pursue their education with fewer family constraints (Women in).

Factory work

Often unmarried women who lived with their parents or siblings took on spinning as their contribution to their household (The Women). From the early years of industrial revolution, textile and clothing manufacture were the key sources of employment for women before the sewing machine appeared In Canadian homes in the 1860’s, some women were employed as seem stresses, sewing by hand at home (The Women). The demand for hand’s sewing decreased with the introduction of machine made clothing (The Women). Clothing was manufactured in factories, small shops and private homes (The Women). Women who sewed at home earned very little but had one advantage of being able to care for young children (The Women). When the demand for sewing was high, the hours were long, but they were often periods of unemployment (The Women). Women working in the garment industry today still do home sewing in conditions reminiscent of the 19th century (The Women). Women factory workers have always been paid much less than men. In the 19th century, wages were insufficient for most women factory workers to live on their own (The Women). In 1895, many young girls were working from 75 to 80 hours a week; the weekly wage ranged from $0.50 to $3.00. Many of these low ages would drive women to prostitution (The Women). Women were customary paid by the peace, and received no money when materials were not available or when the machinery broke down (The Women). Women workers often had to accept part time work, peace-work, home work and unskilled jobs in the labour-intensive garment industry (The Women). During the early years of industrialization working-class women worked in domestic service, sweating or factory work. By the beginning of the 20th century, women with formal education could add teaching, office work, or retail sales to their list of options (The Women).

Income differentials

In 1985, female full time employees earned an average of $18 136 compared to an average of $ 27 675 for men (Shah). The fact that women earned approximately 60 % of what men earned has been recorded constantly over the past several decades (Shah). In 1911, women’s wages were 52.8% of men’s. In 1985 they were 64.9%. Much of the wages gap can be explained by the segregated labour force (Shah). When male/female earnings are compared within occupational categories, the income differences are much smaller. Few women earn enough to support themselves or their independence on their own (Shah).

Men and Women’s work values

Men’s wages were primary for families covering the costs of reproduction; women’s wages were supplementary, either compensating for shortages or providing money over and above what was needed for basic survival (Shah). More-over, men’s wages were supposed to provide the economic support that maintained a family that enabled babies to be fed and turned into working adults (Shah). Since the measure of value was money and since the father’s wage included family subsistence, only the father’s wage mattered (Shah). Women’s wages were set low assuming their lower productivity; on the other hand, women’s low wages were taken as proof that they could not work as hard as men (Shah). The women earn less than men not only because they produce less, but also because what they produce are usually valued in the market at a lower rate (Shah). The idea that men’s and women’s work had different values was because men were more productive than women. No matter what women’s circumstances were, whether they were single, married, heads of households, or the sole support of dependent parents or siblings, their wages were set as if they were supplementary to the earnings of other members of a family (Shah).

Changes

One of the most significant sociological changes in the nation's history began in the last decade of the nineteenth century and the results are still being felt today. This change consisted of the large numbers of women who entered the work force. This dramatic change in Canadian society was accompanied by a great deal of controversy and prejudice directed towards women. It was predicted that female employment would bring about the downfall of society and the change of the Canadian family. Slowly, attitudes began to change (Did). The employment opportunities for women enlarged and women began to slowly gain their rights as full citizens, finally receiving the right to vote in 1920(Did). The attitudes of the women in the work force also changed as time progressed. At first, they struggled for even the opportunity to work. As the century progressed, they became more active in union activities and, as newspapers from the period demonstrate, they fought to achieve better working conditions and better wages (Did).

In today’s society women are as active as they have ever been in our workforce. In recent studies women have taken to the forefront in starting there own businesses yet they lag far behind there male counterparts in positions of corporate management (Did). The Women’s Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor lists the 20 leading occupations of employed women (Did). Of these occupations which include teachers, nurses, and secretaries women outnumber men by more than 80 percent. Some of the other occupations that women perform more than men include retail sales clerks, customer service representatives, and office clerks (Did). Women and men traditionally have worked in different specific occupations within the professional occupational category, a pattern that continued in 2005 (Did). For example, women were less likely than men to be employed in some of the highest-paying occupations, such as engineers and mathematical and computer scientists. Instead, women were more likely to work in lower paying professional occupations, such as teachers (Did).

While some things have changed in the past 110 years, others have stayed the same. Women still find themselves over-represented in 'traditional' occupations of keeping house and shop, taking care of children, and sewing clothes (Did). In 1996, seventy percent of Canadian women in the paid work force were in teaching, nursing and related health services, clerical, administrative, sales and service occupations (Did). While things are changing, they aren't changing fast. While women in Canada have moved into many fields which were once male-dominated, the sexual division of labour is still very real (Did). Pink-collar job is one term used to describe low-status, low-paying, female-dominated occupations like secretaries, salesclerks, and food servers (Did). For many women the choice of this work is determined more by economic necessity than career choices (Did). This kind of work also more easily allows them to leave the workforce for a time while they are having children and return when their children are older.

Women and work in Third world countries

In sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean, women produce up to 80 percent of basic foodstuffs (Shah). In Asia, they account for around 50 percent of food production. In Latin America, they are mainly engaged in subsistence farming, horticulture, poultry and raising small livestock (Shah). Yet women often get little recognition for that. In fact, many go unpaid. It is very difficult for these women to get the financial resources as many societies still do not accept, or realize, that there is a change in the traditional roles.

Reasons for such inequality include the fact that women are generally underpaid and because they often perform low-status jobs, compared to men. Unpaid work is perhaps the biggest contribution that women make to the economy. In Canada unpaid work is estimated to be worth up to $319 in the money economy or 41% of GDP (Shah).

In societies where education is offered on a higher levels like in Canada, the economic possibilities for women are much greater than in those societies where education for women is limited and gender inequality exists at home for example in Africa. In countries where women are starting to take place in the economy, segregation and harassment exists on all levels. Some parts of Africa, where education is still being denied to women, it is clearly seen that the working possibilities offered to women are limited to food production, agriculture and market trade (Shah). This not only creates a problem where most women are excluded from the modern work opportunities but also that women who do work with the economy that is being offered to them, are not recognized as part of the work force.

However because education is limited in most countries of Africa, most women find employment that does not get calculated into the national statistics (Shah). Where employment of women goes unrecognized, it has been approximated that 60% of the market trade in Africa is done by women. In addition to working in market trade, approximately 80% of rural women find themselves working in agriculture and a great deal in house-related employment (Shah). Although a great number of production is carried out by women, because it is not considered employment, working women are usually overlooked, underestimated and oversimplified.

In countries where the economy is slowly accepting women into the work field, segregation and discrimination are very common (Shah). Furthermore this kind of discrimination against educated women results in women furthering into the traditional female occupations such as nursing and teaching (Shah). In Kenya, over 90% of secretarial workers and nurses were females (Shah). Where as in positions such as lawyers, physicians and engineers, women were found to represent 5% of the population (Shah). For those women that do exceed the obstacles of obtaining an education, they must face certain conditions placed on them by the government (Shah). In Kenya, certain acts that have been amended put restrictions on women's employment. One such act, the Widow's and Young Children's Pension Act, claims that unlike a male, a female must sacrifice benefits if she is married or shares a house with a male (Shah).

Gender segregation that is found necessary in Saudi Arabia limits women to certain positions, and most employers will not hire women for the fact that they must create such segregated conditions (Shah). In 1990, the Ministry of Planning estimated that of the 1.923 million Saudis employed, only 168,900 were women (Shah). This means that only 5.3% of all Saudi women who were of working age held any sort of position in the economy (Shah).

As education is seen to influence the economy on a grand scale, countries that have started to accept girls and women into their educational system have seen a much higher increase in female contribution to the economy. Although participation of women in Kuwait remains at a very low percentage, in the recent years where women were accepted into educational institutions, the average participation of the Kuwaiti women in the labor force increased from 1.4% in 1957 to 12.8% in 1980, and by 1993 women's participation had reached 14% (Shah). With the help of the Kuwaiti government, those women that do obtain a position in the labor force have the opportunity to expand their positions to one's of higher standing (Shah). The percentage of women occupying leading administrative positions was 7.6% of the total Kuwaiti employees in this category in 1993, against only 3.2% in 1980. Kuwaiti women are having an active role in the economic development of the nation that they did not have 30 years ago (Shah).

Although such employment conditions have been developing is some of the Third World Countries, other women that are found in societies where such opportunities do not exist, have resorted to such employment as prostitution and sweat shops. In some Asian countries, most industrial female workforce consists of young and single girls between the ages of 16 to 29 (Shah). In some cases 80 to 90% of all factory workers are females (Shah). Because factory girls are the cheapest labor available, girls from Third World Countries are paid eleven times less then the average Canadian worker and are considered as temporary employees (Shah). When no other solution is available, women find themselves in desperate situations turn to prostitution as a way of income (Shah). In countries where prostitution is being practiced, women as well as young girls feel complied to help their families by serving to several hundred men a year.

Other Countries

The past decades, there has been a dramatic increase of women participating in the labour force from countries all over the world including Canada. In 1950, one Canadian worker in five was a woman. By 1980 this percentage had doubled, and women are expected to make up more than 44 percent of the labour force by the increase in female participation started occurring during the 1970's (Duby). This increase also caused the largest baby boom that the Canadian female labour force had ever witnessed. In North America it is common for women to have part-time or summer jobs, and the participation rate of teenage girls is high. It is also mostly high throughout the world in places as United Kingdom because of the fewer women going to school (Duby). But in places like France, Italy, and Japan the female participation rate is very low. In most of the countries the labour force is most participated in the age groups between 20 and 24 (Duby). The labour force of mature women is very high in Sweden, because of the encouraged day care facilities which also provide the females with legislation that provides them with excellent benefits (Duby).

Women and work in Canada today

How much are women paid in Canada today

The average earnings of employed women are still substantially lower than those of men, women make up a disproportionate share of the population with low incomes and women are much more likely than men to work part time. On the other hand, one of their real success stories has been the dramatic gain in the proportion of women with a university degree (Women’s rights today). Women are still slightly less likely than men to have a university degree. But the gap is much narrower than in the past (Women’s rights today). The increased participation of women in the paid work force has been one of the most significant social trends in Canada in the past quarter century. In 2004, 58% of all women aged 15 and over were part of the paid work force, up from 42% in 1976 (Women’s rights today). In contrast, the proportion of men who were employed fell during this period from 73% to 68%. As a result, women accounted for 47% of the employed work force in 2004, up from 37% in 1976 (Women’s rights today). Women have somewhat higher literacy skills, on average, than the male population. The proportion of women living with their spouse has declined in the past two decades; more women are living alone (Heithfield).

While women make up nearly 40% of the global paid workforce, they earn only 26% of the world's income (Heithfield). In Canada, women earn an average of 72 cents for every dollar that a man earns (Heithfield). Men outnumber women in each of the ten highest paid occupations in Canada while women outnumber men in all but one of the ten lowest paid occupations (Heithfield). In both the highest and lowest paid occupations in Canada, women in these occupations earn less than men in the same occupation (Heithfield). For example, female food and beverage servers earn 76% of what male servers earn while female dentists earn 66% of what male dentists earn (Heithfield).

Women's earnings still substantially lower

The average earnings of employed women are still substantially lower than those of men, even when they are employed on a full-time basis. In 2003, women working on a full-time, full-year basis had average earnings of $36,500, or 71% what their male counterparts made (Women still). As well, the gap between the earnings of women and men has not changed substantially in the past decade (Women still). Women make up an unequal share of the population in Canada with low incomes (Women still). In 2003, 31% of single women aged 16 and over lived in low income. Seniors are the least likely single women to have low incomes (Women still). The incidence of low income among single senior women has dropped sharply since the early 1980s (Women still).

Women’s productivity

Even today in the modern, developed world, surveys show that parents still prefer to have a boy rather than a girl. One longstanding reason why boys have been seen as a greater blessing has been that they are expected to become better economic providers for their parents' old age. Yet it is time for parents to think again. Girls may now be a better investment. Girls get better grades at school than boys, and in most developed countries more women than men go to university. Women will thus be better equipped for the new jobs of the 21st century, in which brains count a lot more than brawn.

In Britain far more women than men are now training to become doctors. And women are more likely to provide support for their parents: surveys show that women consistently achieve higher financial returns than men do (The importance). Furthermore, the increase in female employment in the rich world has been the main driving force of growth in the past couple of decades. Those women have contributed more to global GDP growth than have either new technology or the new giants, China and India (The importance). Add the value of housework and child-rearing, and women probably account for just over half of world output. It is true that women still get paid less and few make it to the top of companies, but, as prejudice fades over coming years, women will have great scope to boost their productivity and incomes.

Governments should also embrace the potential of women. Women complain of centuries of exploitation. Yet, to an economist, women are not exploited enough: they are the world's most under-utilised resource; getting more of them into work is part of the solution to many economic woes, including shrinking populations and poverty.

Some people fret that if more women work rather than mind their children, this will boost GDP but create negative social externalities, such as a lower birth rate. Yet developed countries where more women work, such as Sweden and America, actually have higher birth rates than Japan and Italy, where women stay at home (The importance). Others fear that women's move into the paid labour force can come at the expense of children. Yet the evidence for this is mixed. For instance, a study by Suzanne Bianchi at Maryland University finds that mothers spent the same time, on average, on childcare in 2003 as in 1965 (The importance). The increase in work outside the home was offset by less housework and less spare time and less sleep.

What is clear is that in countries such as Japan, Germany and Italy, which are all troubled by the demographics of shrinking populations, far fewer women work than in Canada, let alone Sweden (The importance). If female labour-force participation in these countries rose to Canadian levels, it would give a helpful boost to these countries' growth rates. Likewise, in developing countries where girls are less likely to go to school than boys, investing in education would deliver huge economic and social returns. Not only will educated women be more productive, but they will also bring up better educated and healthier children. More women in government could also boost economic growth: studies show that women are more likely to spend money on improving health, education, infrastructure and poverty and less likely to waste it on tanks and bombs (The importance).

Visible minority

More than one-quarter (26%) of women who reported that they were in a visible minority were Chinese, while 22% were South Asian and 17% were Black, according to the 2001 Census (Women still). Three out of every four women who were members of a visible minority lived in either Ontario or British Columbia (Women still). Women in a visible minority made up 22% of the overall female population of British Columbia, and 19% in Ontario (Women still). The female visible minority population is relatively well educated. In 2001, 21% of visible minority woman aged 15 or older had a university degree, compared with 14% of other women (Women still). But while visible minority women are better educated on average than other Canadian women, they are somewhat less likely to be employed. In addition, visible minority women generally earn less at their jobs than do other women (Women still).

Obstacles

Today, women work in nearly every occupation, including astronauts, senators, physicians, surgeons, lawyers and other positions of prestige and importance. Ask any woman if it was difficult to get where she is today and she will tell you that she faced many obstacles that men do not face. Women often face discrimination before they get to their chosen occupation. In many colleges and universities, there is a lack of role models for young women (Heithfield). There is not a ready supply of women professors to advise female students about the benefits of networking and discovering like men do, who can help them get their careers started (Heithfield).

Women will explain that it is difficult to juggle being a career woman and a mother. In many careers, there is a "mommy track" for women who want to work and be a care giver too (Heithfield). This career path doesn't lead to being the head of the department or president of the company. It is a sidetrack to a job that dead ends. It is because men in most fields see themselves as dedicated to their jobs (Heithfield). Women who want to have families are not viewed the same way. Men feel that they have lost interest in their jobs and are no longer dependable. When a crisis arises at home, women will leave their jobs and tend to take care of their children. This is not the way, men think, to act. The paying job is all important and cannot be abandoned at any time.

For the woman returning to work after being a mother for many years, the path is hard. Unless there is need for a , men do not understand why their wife wants to work. There is no emotional support for them if they don't find work in their field because men feel it's not something they need to do. Because they have not kept up with advances in their field, women may not be hired at all. If they are hired, they may be forced into a path within the industry that has no future (Heithfield).

Solutions to overcome obstacles

Future Prediction and Solutions

As more women are added to the labor force, their share will approach that of men. In 2008, women will make up about 48 percent of the labor force and men 52 percent (Heithfield). In 1988, the respective shares were 45 and 55 percent (Heithfield).

The number of women will continue to increase in the workforce. Women will continue to have primary responsibility for home and family matters, thus affecting work attendance negatively. Most women's jobs are clustered in "female" occupations that pay poorly. There are many solutions to overcome such problems. For instance promoting and educating women so women pursue opportunities for education in higher paying opportunities (Heithfield). Offer women training and education opportunities which will prepare them for promotion to positions in technology and science (Heithfield). Hiring equal number of women into employer-sponsored training and education programs that will prepare them for a career path in higher paying, technology-related positions (Heithfield). Many have just not had the opportunity and may have an unrealistic understanding of the skills and knowledge required to successfully operate a computer (Heithfield). Work with your local elementary school, middle school, high school, community college, and college to ensure that programs and educational opportunities are in place that exposes girls to technology, math, and science, in addition to the helping careers (Heithfield). Ensure that clubs, science project competitions, and all other opportunities, reach out equally to girls. Social equality for women will increase social equality for men (Heithfield). For example, when employers recognize family responsibilities as a legitimate reason for benefits and time off, this advance will help both men and women in the workforce. There will be greater flexibility for men to take care of their children and sick or elderly relatives. The labour market will become more people-oriented (Heithfield).

Conclusion

Overall as you can see, this report has shown how women are still facing discrimination, inequality and lack of management positions in some parts of the world. Despite the gains of the past century, Canadian women continue to face many challenges in the new millennium. Some of those challenges include: balancing work and family responsibilities, recognition for the unpaid care giving work as well as eliminating the wage gap between women and men. Although this discussion of the history of women’s paid work has been brief, it demonstrates the extent to which current patterns are entrenched. In the first half of the twentieth century, increasing numbers of women entered the paid labour force, and until World War II the vast majority of these women were single. The combination of inflation, improvements in household technology, smaller family size, and shorter working attitudes has encouraged the employment of married women since mid-century. Women are still facing some obstacles today such as earning an average of 72 cents for every dollar that a man is earning. Such problems can be solved if employers start realizing the inequality that women are still facing and are acting upon them.