LITERATURE REVIEW
Women, in times past and even presently have been speaking of equal rights in the home, in the church, but most importantly, in the workplace….
Over 40 years ago, sociologist Hellen Hacker was among the first to suggest that women did not receive benefits in the workplace equal to those of men. Writing during the economic boom following World War 2 when two (or one and a half) incomes were being required to support an increasingly affluent lifestyle: Hacker observes that women were treated as a workforce minority. She noted that women themselves perpetuated this discrimination.
Hacker also observed that women faced the expectation that they appeared deferential and content in subordinate roles. On first thought, some people would argue that conditions have changed considerably since 1951. Changes such as
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which extended the prohibition against sex discrimination to include not only wages, but also job classification, assignment, promotion and training. A 1978 amendment required employers to treat pregnancy in the same way as any other disability.
Such recent phenomena as the “ glass ceiling” and the “revolving door”, however, would cause many to be less optimistic.
On their way up the corporate ladder women regularly encounter what is known as the ‘glass ceiling’ – they can see, but are unable to reach top jobs because of traditional corporate cultures and gender stereotypes. The Civil Rights Act of 1991, however, extended to women victims of job bias the right to sue their employers for monetary damages. The act also established a commission to probe the "glass ceiling" that has prevented women and other minorities from advancing to top management.
Sociologist Jerry Jacobs reported in his 1989 book on the ‘revolving door’, another problem women face in the job market. Current statistics consistently show more women in the highest paid, previously male-dominated professions, but many women leave these fields as they meet with discriminatory treatment and those who stay struggle to
‘make it’.
As female, in the economic sphere, women are largely confined to sedentary, monotonous work under the supervision of men, and are treated unequally concerning promotion and responsibility. With the exceptions of teaching, nursing, social services and library work, in which they do not hold a proportionate number of supervisory positions and are often occupationally segregated from men, they make poor showing in the professions…. Even when they are admitted to the political parties, they are subordinate to men.
According to William Feigelman (Sociology Full Circle); almost any woman, who has taken part in a mixed-gender meeting or group discussions, has had the experience of having her ideas ignored when she expressed them. They are, however, picked up when they were echoed by a man – and thereafter attributed to him. Research shows that women are not as likely to be listened to as men regardless of how they speak or what they say. Some say, this is a result of their pitch of voice and gender stereotypes. Research also shows that one of the main reasons that women were unable to attain certain positions was that women were thought to be too emotional and unable to separate their emotions from work. There was also the thought that women were irrational.
Hence, in order to prove themselves, women have to ‘work twice as hard to get just as far as their male counterparts in the workplace.
The present contravention of the sexes, ensuing from women’s competition with men, is manifested in the discriminations against women, as well as the doubts and uncertainties expressed concerning women’s character, abilities and motives. One major reason for gender discrimination was the fact that women were often found to be in the backgrounds of most events… most literature stated that women were seen as child bearers and homemakers. What should be noted however is that the women that were studded were Europeans or Americans and it was rare to see a family in which a man did not take authority which therefore gave the woman a weak and helpless appearance. In the Caribbean however – according to Christine Barrow, S. Mkiesky-Barrow and C. Sutton – most families are matrifocal (i.e. female headed households). Therefore, these women not only have to raise children but also to provide for their families, hence, they are forced to become independent. The Caribbean has adopted many legislative principles from both Europe and the Americas making it easier for women to thrive in the workplace. This does not suggest however, that gender discrimination is non-existent in the Caribbean but rather that it has found a more subtle way to show itself.
DATA COLLECTION SOURCES
The data for this paper rests on two complementary techniques. Its primary data sources are two kinds of questionnaires one for non-management positions, and another for those holding management positions. These two questionnaires allowed for the examination of the existence of the ‘glass ceiling’ and the ‘revolving door’.
Beyond the usual total reliance on the questionnaires (with the hope that they were answered honestly), one or two interviews (for extensive information which the questionnaires could not give) were conducted with those holding management and non-management positions in the work place. Secondary information was gathered as well and although found to be limited, Eurocentric, and outdated, it did, to a large extent provide the foundation for this research.
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
CHART I
VALUE OF OPINIONS
CHART II
PERCEPTION OF GENDER INEQUALITY
CHART III
10-YEAR MOVEMENT OF EXECUTIVE POSITIONS
CHART IV
BOSS-EMPLOYEE RATIO
CHART V
SPREAD OF GENDER OCCUPANCY IN MANAGEMENT POSITIONS
INTERPREATION OF FINDINGS
DISCUSSION
After reviewing the data collected via questionnaires, one might say that gender discrimination is almost non-existent in the Caribbean. However upon a closer review it can be seen that although women seem to be ‘breaking the glass ceiling’ in reality what they are doing is pushing it higher. In other words, although most women make it to managerial positions, other positions such as partner and C.E.O. is held by men. It can also be seen that sedentary or clerical positions are still be held mainly by females. Not only are the majority of females in these positions, but also they are found content with the positions that they occupy. Those who hold managerial positions however face little discrimination on the job and state that all rewards are given based on merit and not sex. However, it should be noted that they do not question the fact that their C.E.O. s are mainly men (if not all men). In fact, they accept it and are content in their present positions. It is not said that they think these positions (C.E.O., partner, etc) should be only for men. Instead, they seem to see it as a mere coincidence. However, if they had tried to attain these positions, their story would be different. It is known that discussing the issue of gender discrimination in the workplace is ‘just not done’. Moreover, if the topic ever arose there would be the strong sentiment that there was in fact no gender discrimination in the workplace. Although people do not wish to discuss it or ignore it, it is still very much there. For men who hold the top positions will willingly give it to another male if he merited that position. If however a female were to apply for that very position, ‘difficulties’ would arise and many reasons – other than gender – would be given as to why she could not receive that position.
According to the information presented, there were many contradictions found when reviewing the questionnaires. For example in the data collected while about 65% of those in the workplace state that there is no gender discrimination the same amount will state that male opinion has preference over female opinion. Is that not showing gender bias and in turn discrimination? It also has been noted from the presented data that 27% of female receive frontline management positions (the first level of management). There after, as the levels of management rise the percentage of females who receive these management positions fall considerably from 10% (middle and upper management) to 3% (executive). Their male counter parts on the contrary, rise from 10% (frontline and middle management) to 13% (upper management) and then to 17% (executive) this only shows that males are more likely to receive promotions of this kind. Does this not show discrimination? On the other-hand, it could mean that those females are not qualified for those positions; maybe the system is fair after all. Interviews with some individuals gave the impression that the system was not as fair as it appeared. For while some females may not be qualified for these types of promotion there are those who are qualified and still do not get the position desired. When asked the reason for this, one cannot be given. The in turn do not question the decision but rather sit back, and are content with it and vow within themselves to work harder in the future probably knowing fully well that they may never attain that position.
This is the problem with battling discrimination. Women will not admit that there are discriminatory practices. They do not make enough effort or are not motivated enough to become equal with their male counterparts who are on higher managerial levels. Lastly, they have become too complacent with regards to their betterment on a whole.
CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION
In this paper, my purpose has been to determine whether gender discrimination is still a problem for the Caribbean society (Jamaica in particular), and also to show to what extent it may exist. In keeping this focus, I can now state the summary of the paper, which is that gender discrimination has been fairly snuffed out – by the public that is. There still however, are subtle traces of it to be found in executive levels in the workplace thus proving that it has not been fully eradicated. Gender discrimination has been found to become not so much an elephant but rather a mouse in the room that one does not really see but knows it is there. Moreover, like the elephant in the room that no one wants to admit it is there (let alone talk about) gender discrimination has become a silent problem.
LIMITATIONS
When all is said and done there remain a handful of problems (or as the topic states limitations) with this paper. Firstly, there can be found no guarantee that the questionnaires were answered honestly because while the answer to the questions said one thing further analysis said another. Secondly, there were questionnaires, which went unanswered. These questionnaires could have made a difference in the results of this research. Lastly, there was the issue of trust concerning those in executive levels; many of the unanswered questionnaires came from these levels, as there was a fear of being discovered.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Gender Discrimination is a global issue that has plagued the work place for centuries. Although there has been an improvement because women are now more educated, much more needs to be accomplished if this is to be totally eradicated.
From the work and analysis done the following recommendations are put forward in order to assist in address the problem.
- Women must first acknowledge that there is a real problem. To assist with this process women groups in the society must speak out.
- Media must get Government attention on this important issue.
- Trade Unions must lobby for this cause and speak out when ever this issue shows up.
- Leader must be encouraged to be fair in their assessment of employees.
- Women who are now at the helm of organisation must also lobby for the cause and tell of their experiences in achieving their goals.
- Women must continue to improve their educational levels so that they can be at the same level as their male counter part.
- . Women must move out with confidence if they are going to achieve.
- They must quit putting each other down and instead lift.
Finally, women must free themselves from this mental slavery as one can only achieve what the mind can conceive
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Edited by Christine Barrow and Rhoda Reddock (2001)
Caribbean Sociology Introductory Readings - Kingston Jamaica Ian Randle Publishers Limited.
Edith Clarke(1975) My MotherWwho Fathered Me- Great Britain Unwin Brothers Limited.
George A.Steiner, John B. miner, Edmund R. Gray Management Policy and Strategy Text, Readings and Cases - Canada Volume 2 Third Edition
Lynn Bateck and Dr. Karen Mullin-(1995) Enduring Issues In Sociology- Greenhaven Press Inc
William Feigelman – (1972) Sociology Full Circle Contemporary Reading on Society- Harcourt Brace College Publishers
Microsoft – (1999) – Encarta Encyclopedia.
APPENDIX I
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NON- MANAGEMENT POSITIONS.
- What type of business place do you work ?
- What position do you hold?
- What is the highest position held by a female at your work place?
- What positions at your workplace are held mainly by females?
- What positions at your workplace are held mainly by males?
- Is the manager male or female?
- When applying for certain positions at your workplace is gender considered.
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
- You sometimes feel intimidated by your male or female counterpart
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
- Do you feel that you are treated fairly and not based on sex?
- State the reason for your answer
If you are male then answer the next two questions:
- Your position is best held by a female
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
- Give reason for your answer
- Your gender gave you an advantage in acquiring your position.
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
- Give reason for your answer
If you are female, answer the next three questions
- Your gender gave you an advantage in acquiring your position.
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
- Your work is sedentary (desk bound) and monotonous (dull and routine)
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
- You cannot apply for certain positions
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
- Do you think there has been an increase in the number of female mangers over the last 10 years..
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
Why ?
- Do you think there has been an increase in the number of male mangers over the last 10 years..
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
Why ?
APPENDIX II
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MANAGEMENT POSITIONS
- What type of business place do you work?
- The Board Of Directors is made up of:
All males mostly males equally mixed mostly females all females
- What type of position do you hold?
- How many males are in that field?
- How many females are in that field?
- Is your boss male or female?
- When at meetings, your opinions are:
Readily heard I ‘struggle’ to make my opinions heard
- Do you receive differential treatment because of your gender?
Yes sometimes rarely no
Males only:
- Do you feel intimidated or pressured by your female counterpart
Yes sometimes rarely no
- Do you think that you are qualified for C.E.O.? (if you are not one)
Yes no
- If yes, what do you think are your chances of obtaining that position?
1% 50% 90% 100%
- Do you think your gender may have an impact on your receiving that position?
Yes no
Females only:
- Do you feel intimidated or pressured by your male counterpart
Yes sometimes rarely no
- Do you think that you are qualified for C.E.O.? (if you are not one)
Yes no
- If yes, what do you think are your chances of obtaining that position?
1% 50% 90% 100%
- Give reason for your answer.
- Do you think your gender may have an impact on your receiving that position?
Yes no
- Do you think there has been an increase in the number of female mangers over the last 10 years..
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
Why ? ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
- Do you think there has been an increase in the number of male mangers over the last 10 years..
Strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree
Why ? ________________________________________________________
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