Stage 7:
The media report on the drug. Articles in newspapers call attention to the drug problem. Media stories may implicitly or explicitly suggest that the drug is new. In the late 1980’s, articles on crack and ice created the impression that these were new drugs even though, in Los Angeles, base cocaine and rock had been around for a decade. Employing the term crack tended to make the drug seem more desirable to youngsters who wanted to impress their peers.
The stages described represent the worst case; many drugs do not make it past the early stages. Epidemic use (Stage 1) can last for decades. Progression through the early stages does not necessarily foretell an epidemic.
Although drug use is now a prevalent factor across all age groups in Irish society it can be safely said that the teenage/adolescent years are when people are most easily influenced or pressurised. It is especially during the years of adolescence when children begin to spend a lot more time with their friends, and less time with their family. This makes them more susceptible to the influences of their peers.
During adolescence, children practice risk-taking behaviours as they are trying to find their own identity and become more independent. This makes them very vulnerable to experimenting or becoming addicted to using drugs. The will to say ‘no’ is just not strong enough all of the time and the influence of the peer group may prove stronger.
Although the community gives broad shape to the addict role, it is in the addict peer group that the role is refined and unfortunately becomes learned in detail. An abuser peer group will teach norms that contribute to abuse. For some adolescents, group affiliation becomes a fundamental aspect of personal identity. It is chiefly within these groups that the whole aspect of peer pressure arises.
“Association with drug-using peers is a highly powerful influence promoting adolescent drug use” (Kaplan & Johnson 1991). The importance of peer pressure urging the adolescent to use drugs cannot be underestimated.
Adolescents are at a very vulnerable age and affiliation to a peer group, may be seen by them, as a sense of security and belonging, therefore their drug using peers may have a stronger chance of getting them involved in the viscous cycle of drug use.
It is common among the adolescent age group for drug use to be a condition for acceptance as a member of some peer groups. The drug-using peer groups teaches the adolescent that drug users as a group are no more weak, sick, evil, or dependant than the rest of their peers. Adolescents who believe that drug use is common among the peer group are likely to accept the idea that drug use is normative behaviour.
Several rural studies have noted that peer influence is one of the strongest predictors of adolescent drug use. However, it is vital to understand the dynamics of peer groups in different environments. For example gangs in inner cities are frequently linked to drugs and crime.
Virtually everyone is exposed to drugs at some stage of their lives. By far the largest group of young illegal drug users are experimenters and this experimentation is most commonly occurring in the pre-teen/adolescent age group. Experimentation does not, however, appear to vary in any particular social group, rich or poor.
However, teenagers and adolescents who have a good communication bond with their parents have been shown to be much less at risk for experimenting with drugs. Those with a high sense of self worth, confidence and esteem have also been shown to be less likely to succumb to negative peer influences.
Alcohol and Marijuana are the most popular drugs that adolescents begin to experiment with. Paediatrician, Donald Ian MacDonald of the University of Florida describes four stages that occur as young adolescents begin to give in to peer pressure and experiment with drugs.
The first stage describes when the adolescent first gives into peer pressure. At this initial stage of experimentation with a drug they find the high pleasurable. Once this high is experienced, most teens decide to continue using the drug for enjoyment. Those adolescents, who admit that their friends smoke or do drugs, even if they deny their own use, are revealing that they are in a high-risk peer group and have friends who have already caved into peer pressure.
In the second stage the teen is now using drugs to deal with stress and negative feelings rather than to increase positive feelings.
In the third stage, drug use has become a major focus of the teen’s life. He/she is now at the centre of his/her peer-group as they are continuing the commonly practiced activity of their peers.
In the fourth stage the drug has lost its ability to produce euphoria and the adolescent may just be taking the drug to stay within their peer group and ward off guilt and depressed.
Taking into consideration that in Ireland between 1990-1998, the number of drug related deaths rose from 7 to 99 (Mayodu 2001:5), it is important in relation to this that society should have basic knowledge considering the different types of drugs and the short and long term effects of drugs on the body.
There is a wide range of substances that can be abused by individuals. The most common of these are:
- Opioids: Prescription pain killers such as Morphine; illegal substances such as Heroin
- Cocaine based drugs
- Sedatives: Tranquillizers
- Benzodiazapines: Prescription drugs e.g. Valium
- Cannabinoid drugs obtained from hemp plants
- Inhalants and solvents
- Amphetamines: Speed
- Hallucinogenics
Research findings from a study done in Ireland in 1998 indicated that of people aged between18 and 64, 9.4% used Cannabis; 2.6% used Amphetamines; 2.4% used Ecstasy; 1.4% used LSD; 1.3% used Cocaine and 0.3% used Heroine. All of the above will be discussed in more detail.
Cannabis/Marijuana was the widest used drug in Ireland in 1998. It is derived from the hemp plant and was traditionally used in medicine. Among the 400 chemicals found in its rein it is the active ingredient THC or Delta-9-Tetrahydro-Cannibal that is addictive and therefore classes the cannabis by its potency. Its level of concentration gives rise to three classes of the drug:
- Marijuana and grass
- Cannabis oil
- Cannabis resin
Its popular use is when mixed with tobacco and shaped into a cigarette. Due to this a variety of street names have come into use like grass, hash, weed, pot, etc. The effects of Cannabis are almost instant on the body and mind, lasting approximately three to four hours. Many users become talkative and giddy with feelings of relaxation contentment and happiness, depending on their mood before use, with alterations to senses of sight and hearing.
Of two hundred New York City users studied, they replied that they felt more peaceful and relaxed. 46% mentioned these feelings without being prompted; 36% became ‘turned on’ sexually; 31% believed their thoughts were more profound and philosophical; and 29% thought events were comical.
Physical effects found were clumsiness, slurred speech, slow reactions, dilated and redness of the eye with nausea, diarrhoea and occasional vomiting. Overdoses are rarely reported but some known side effects are: rapid heartbeat, panic attacks, paranoia and flash back. Recent research has shown that continuous use affects abilities to learn, causes minor periodic memory loss and lowers sperm count, however, effects cease after abuse has halted. Like with the use of cigarettes, the functions of the lungs are impaired and the immune system is weakened, but effects are greater with cannabis use as it is five times more potent than regular cigarettes.
Amphetamines/stimulants were discovered by a German physicist in 1887, and were first used mainly for medical purposes. The most common amphetamine abused is Speed, which is commonly in tabulated form, but also available in a white powder, which is absorbed into the body inhalation, rubbing on gums, ingestion or intravenously.
The abuser of amphetamines finds increasing energy levels, alertness and self-confidence as it stimulates the motor activities, i.e. walking, talking and dancing, which in effect increase heartbeat while lowering calcium levels.
Minor long-term effects can be loss of teeth with loss of dentine due to rubbing on gums, damage to lining and septum of the nose from snorting. Extreme long-term usage can change the life of the abuser with insomnia, hyperactivity, paranoia, hallucinations, irritability and aggression with fits of violence making everyday hell like. Extreme behaviour fixation can develop, trapping the abuser in a repeating loop of pointless processes e.g. counting how many cornflakes are in the box, repeatedly.
Hallucinogenics are an amphetamine derivative with similar effects. A 1996 study shows a half million users of hallucinogenics in England each year. There are over one thousand variations of hallucinogenic drugs but the most frequently used is ecstasy. Other forms include LSD and magic mushrooms.
Ecstasy once taken increases the users heart rate and heightens blood pressure, causing a “rushing sensation like an orgasm that starts at your toes and goes through your body” lasting up to four hours. Other effects are impotence and delays in orgasm.
‘Eidetic imagery’, seeing things that are not really there; and ‘multi level reality’, seeing objects or things from several perspectives; also objects often seem to be wavering in form, i.e. straight lines become circles and the image of oneself and others become distorted, e.g. eyelashes turning into snakes.
Cocaine, which was extracted from the coca leaf in the mid nineteenth century by a German scientist, can be absorbed into the body by sniffing, injecting or smoking (crack cocaine). The effects of cocaine, which are similar to those of amphetamines, create illusions of well being increase in confidence, optimism, and self-esteem but only for a short period of time.
Immunity can develop from prolonged use, giving less effects like the previously listed above with the need for food and sleep decreases. Extremely high blood pressure develops over time causing high temperatures, dry mouth, trembling hands, anxiety, agitation, sweating and dizziness, with eventual irrevocable damage to the nerves and blood vessels of the brain. Severe chest pains, bronchitis and asthma are common effects among abusers of crack cocaine.
Opiates, which are extracted from the opium poppy, were used widespread up until the nineteenth century. Heroine is the most commonly abused type of opiate can be absorbed into the blood stream by injecting, sniffing or smoking. Its anaesthetic like qualities relieves pain and anxiety but nausea and vomiting follow these highs, which cause dependency both physically and mentally quickly. Thus overdosing and needle sharing which can spread HIV is rampant, making most abusers physically unhealthy with fluctuating hormone levels, poor appetite and desperately dependant on the drug to relieve these downs.
Substance abuse not only affects the user, but it may also have effects on those who are close to the individual who is drug taking. According to Gullotta, 1987, in relation to substance misuse, “the target group has moved from the individual to a larger system that includes the family, the school and the community.”
Effects are particularly evident within a family structure. The main effects which drug misuse can be seen to cause the family are as follows:
BEREAVEMENT:
Bereavement, of all life experiences, is widely considered to be the most traumatic for families. A death in the family can require significant emotional and social adjustment. In the case of a drug-related death, bereavement can frequently be sudden. According to a study of death in the family, carried out my Michael Anderson, 1997, for the Newcastle Centre for Family Studies, when sudden death occurs in a family, it may be the cause of “severe shock and sudden depression or despair when remaining family members are forced to face the absence of a loved one immediately without warning.”
Within the family structure, reaction to the occurrence of bereavement differs, depending on the particular relationship that is involved. Michael Anderson states that: “although bereavement is felt uniquely by each person in the family, the particular relationship the individual had with the deceased person inevitably colours the experience of bereavement.”
HEALTH:
The misuse of drugs not only brings about negative health effects for the user, but can also have implications for the health of those close to the user. For example, within a family setting, the knowledge of one family members drug habit can cause other members to suffer from stress and anxiety or depression. In essence, worry, due to a family members addiction, may be the cause of poor health for the rest of the family.
In addition to this, drug use by a pregnant mother can have physical effects on the unborn child, as drugs act as terratogens on the foetus. For example, many drugs, such as heroin, cross the placental barriers, resulting in addicted babies who go through withdrawal symptoms soon after birth; Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) can effect children of mothers who consume alcohol during pregnancy; pregnant women who acquire AIDS virus through intravenous drug use, pass the virus to their infant.
Not only does this fact have implications for the health of the unborn baby, but also for the well-being of the other family members before the birth, where undoubtedly much stress and anxiety would be felt, but also after the birth, for example if the baby’s health were impeded due to substance misuse.
MARITAL PROBLEMS:
In the case of a marital situation, where one partner is involved in substance misuse, several negative issues may be raised between partners, for example: worry, frustration, stress and moral issues. The users preoccupation with the substance, plus its effects on mood, can essentially lead to marital problems. According to the University of Virginia Health services Centre, a common effect of drug use within a marriage is a pattern of co-dependency, that is, the spouse, out of love or fear of consequences, inadvertently enables the user to continue using drugs by covering up, supplying money or denying that there is a problem. In a situation like this, drug abuse can lead to severe marital problems, which may lead to the ending of th partnership.
DISRUPTION OF FAMILY LIFE:
According to the Irish Health Promotion Unit, a powerful method of drug misuse prevention is the provision of a ‘stable family atmosphere’. However, this can be difficult to maintain, as a drug abuse within a family can cause great disruption of usual family life. An example of disruption that may take place is the effect that drug abuse may have on a family’s finances. The purchase of drugs may be vastly expensive, and may place a financial strain upon the family. In other words, if a large amount of the family income is used to fund a drug habit, the needs of the family may be neglected.
An interesting finding in the study of drug abuse’s effect on the family is the fact that, in recent years, a movement has commenced among families in areas with vast drug problems, involving parents within these communities uniting against drug dealers, in an effort to protect their children, for example, Concerned Parents Against Drugs (CPAD) in co. Dublin. The aim of such organisations is to “push” known drug dealers out of their areas, by methods like intimidation tactics and ostracizing them from the community. This has been the cause of much controversy in recent times.
Under the health board, treatment services are set up at regional and local levels to combat drug use in Ireland. At present, the main funding comes from the Department of Health and Children, which goes to the health boards, and from them to voluntary and community agencies. Health boards are not consistent in the way they organize their drug treatment services. In some health board areas, drug services are provided under Health Promotion or Public Health, while in others, services are provided under Psychiatric Services.
Drug treatment services are provided for through a network of treatment locally where possible. (Department of Health and Children, 2000.) In addition to some of these central treatment services, a network of addiction centres and satellite clinics have been developed. Also, primary provision is continually being developed with the involvement of general practitioners and local pharmacies where local delivery is being encouraged.
Some recent initiatives in treatment policy and programmes have been introduced in order to cut down on drug misuse in Ireland. They include health boards expanding their prevention, treatment and rehabilitation programmes. Additional funding has also helped to provide adequate services for drug misuse. FAS have allocated a significant number of Community Employment places to rehabilitation programmes for recovering drug abusers.
In addition, the Irish prisoners services and the Eastern Region Health Board have joined together to ensure cohesion and continuity of care in the treatment available to drug abusers entering and leaving prison. The Eastern Health Board have published an ‘Inventory of Policies’ for its AIDS and drug addiction services in October 1998. It covers policy in all main areas under the headings: treatment, viral illnesses, general and administrative.
In 1999 a review of services was conducted (Farrell, Gerada & Marsden, 2000). This report concluded that the Eastern Health Board had succeeded in achieving a major expansion in services in the last five years prior to the year 2000, and that the rates of opiate use, as indicated by urine testing, suggested that clinics were operating to a very high standard according to that particular parameter. However, they argued that needle exchange services should be broadened to include briefer types of intervention.
Clinics have been developed specifically to meet the needs of drug users. Expansion in clinic services has been overwhelmingly in the area of substitution programmes, including methadone detoxification, stabilisation and maintenance. These clinics fall into two categories.
The first category is referred to as ‘addiction centres’, where ranges of services are available to clients. The majority of the clients attending such clinics consume Methadone under the supervision of a member of staff. Supervised urine samples are taken on a regular basis. When clients have demonstrated a certain level of stability, by providing opiate-negative samples over a period of time, they may be dispensed ‘take home’ doses. This requires less frequent attendance at the clinic.
The second category of clinic is referred to as the ‘satellite clinic’. These are clinics based in communities identified as having a significant opiate-using population. These clinics provide Methadone-prescribing services, although it is not dispensed on site. Rather, clients attend a designated community pharmacy where their Methadone is given out.
Ireland has an extensive range of facilities for treatment and initiative in drug abuse. Some of these include Narcotics Anonymous, and locally, the County Waterford Community-Based Drugs Initiative (CWCBDI).
Narcotics Anonymous is a non-profit society of men and women for whom drugs have become a major problem. Narcotics Anonymous consists of recovering addicts who meet regularly to help each other stay clean. This is a program of complete abstinence from all drugs. There is only one requirement for membership: the desire to stop using and the willingness to try a new way of life.
The County Waterford Community-Based Drugs Initiative was established in November 1999 and its aims were to increase awareness of drug-related issues, develop strategies for the reduction of demand for drugs, support local communities in responding to local needs relating to drug issues and also to improve the quality of life of those affected by drug misuse. The project is currently involved in many initiatives. It provides drug awareness programmes to youth groups and schools. It runs parent support groups and it promotes the development of drug policies in various organisations.
In doing this assignment we have come to the conclusion that due to changing attitudes in contemporary society, drug abuse has become a prominent issue. As we can see, it is the teenage adolescent years that are most vulnerable to being subjected to drug abuse, as they are most easily influenced and experimentation is high among their peer groups, and this is where more intervention and prevention should occur.
We have outlined the most commonly used drugs and their physical and emotional effects. However, we believe that more research should be done in this area. We have discovered that drug abuse has many adverse effects, not only on society and the user, but also on the family. The effects of drug abuse on the family can be both abundant and severe and because of this, substance abuse poses a serious threat to the family unit. For this reason, in our opinion, where a drug problem exists, family security cannot.
It is our concluding thought as a group, that drug prevention schemes should be implemented into every school as part of the students’ curriculum. It is our combined view that equal emphasis should be placed on drug prevention as well as drug treatment.
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