Spiritual possession is a part of today's society and will most likely continue to interest and fascinate future generations. In Africa cultures in particular there is still what is known as ‘healers’ commonly referred to as ‘traditional doctors’ and very important throughout African cultures. African cultures still believe that good health is maintained through appropriate behaviour, based on values norms and traditions of that culture. Illness to an African culture is based upon inappropriate behaviour, which is thought to be the doing of ‘evil sprits’. Diviners primarily deal with these ‘evil sprits’ through direct intervention of the spiritual world. However this is only one of the few cultures that exist today that still believe in the extent that illness is the direct effect of ‘evil sprits’. Western practitioners on the other hand do not believe in supernatural explanations for ‘abnormal’ behavior, but one that is based on biological and psychological principles. Although this maybe the case worldwide belief systems within society such as Christianity still exist today. Christian belief systems use prayers to a spiritual god to either help cure or rid love-ones or friends who are ill and exhibiting abnormal behaviours. And when considering worldwide practitioners you can distinctively see that each culture development of pathology and healing are different. Abnormal behaviour is now understood to of been based on cultural relativism and in some cases still is.
Like the paranormal explanation of abnormal behaviour, biological and psychological approaches have there roots in the past. Hippocrates the Greek father of medicine proposed that abnormal behaviour should be treated as any other disease or illness of the body. Hippocrates thought that abnormal behaviour must have roots in the brain and its functioning and was later discovered by the roman physician Galen. Galen influenced many other physicians in the biological treatment of abnormal behaviour, this significant proposal of biological treatment remerged in the mid nineteenth century. Thus giving a great insight into the anatomy, physiology, neurology and chemistry of the body to which has increased more knowledge of biological causes of ‘abnormality’.
The birth of the psychological approach in the late nineteenth century and early part of the twentieth century, created a deeper understanding of not only defining ‘abnormality’ but also treating it. Research by Franz Mesmer who was famously known for his techniques of magnetism and who unknowingly came across the method of hypnotism which was previously known as somnambulism. It was thought that many scientists found hypnotism hard to explain, thus generating many hypotheses. This evolutionary development opened up many important psychotherapeutic principles, as it brought into focus that cognitions and behaviour could operate at different levels of awareness. This small step forward in the psychological explanation created the foundation to which Sigmund Freud soon led to the development of psychotherapy as a treatment used for those suffering from a mental illness. Freud was a tenacious scientist who pursued his research almost religiously. His enormous contribution laid the foundation for modern psychotherapy and his influence is still seen today in almost every theoretical and practical model of psychotherapeutic intervention.
When you begin look into the extent of modern attitudes towards mental illness and how they reflect historical perspectives of abnormal behaviour you can conclude many similarities and differences which can be seen throughout the transition from past to present. To begin with, an abnormal behaviour can now be classified in terms of its symptoms rather than just being accepted. Psychiatrists, psychologists and physicians use the following two systems in the diagnostic classification of a patient. They are the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV (DSM_IV) published by the American Psychiatric Association and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) published by the World Health Organization (WHO). This allows us to properly diagnose ‘abnormal’ behaviour, than simply just assuming and misinterpretation of certain symptoms wrongly as they did many centuries ago. Chosen methods of treatment are now more ethical and moral well-being due to laws and regulation pasted and shows a completely different outlook to treating mental illnesses that before. The Mental Health Act 1983 (the Act has since been significantly amended by the Mental Health Act 2007) in particular states that safeguards should be provided to people in hospital, assuring that a patient’s receives the after-care services they require when discharged from hospital. Thus marks the start of acceptance of mental illness amongst society.
Modern attitudes towards abnormal behaviour show a more humane and ethical approach providing a diverse multitude of treatment options that specifically developed to relieve symptoms if not try to rid a person of a mental illness. The introduction of drugs in the 1900’s, seen a break through, were drug treatments for some of the major forms of abnormality. In particular, the discovery of a class of drugs that could reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia, known as the phenothiazines, show that the understanding of mental illness takes time and patients to directly target and understand it. Along side the development of drugs different therapies seemed to make the scene in the essence that mental illnesses could be helped. Psychiatrists now know that mental processes, the social environment and an individual’s genetic makeup greatly influence a person susceptibly of developing a mental illness. To label a behaviour as ‘abnormal’ a psychologist must take into account the definition of ‘normal’ and whether the context is socio-cultural, biological or psychosocial. One statement that is very inspirational is that which states ‘a mother who nurtures her child is ‘normal’ but a mother who murders her child is ‘abnormal’. It is this definition that allows for the study, the treatment and the care for abnormal behaviours to begin.
Ancient Chinese medicine is also reflected within modern attitudes towards the diagnosis of a mental illness such as schizophrenia and bipolar. The Chinese demonstrate that behaviour needs a balance. They recommend that there should be a balance between both positive and negative forces to achieve a normal healthy life. This is distinctively seen throughout explanations of the latter two mental illnesses stated. Whereas the Greeks believed that the brain was the seat of reasoning and consciousness, as well as the seat of abnormal behaviours. While belief in the paranormal is largely contradicted by the biological and psychological fields of study, cultures throughout the world that believe the stars and the moon influence their behaviour still exist.
Throughout ancient times those who were declared mad and exhibited signs of violence were usually locked up. Modern attitudes towards people with a mental illness and deemed as uncontrollable still exist today, and the same practices of ‘locking’ them away still exist. In other words residential care homes or mental institutions are the commonly know places where the mentally ill people are kept in and secluded from the surrounding society. The stigmatising of certain mental illnesses can lead to criminalising of the person with the mental illness. Stigma can influence the line between mental illness and the criminal justice system. Police rather than the mental health system, respond to mental health crises, thereby contributing to the increasing prevalence of people with serious mental illness in jail (Watson, Ottati, Corrigan, and Heyrman, in press). Teplin (1984) also supports this notion as a person who exhibits symptoms and signs of a serious mental illness are more likely than others to be arrested by the police,
The subject of mental illness has always been regarded as a taboo and signs of this are still seen in today’s society. Stigma hasn’t gone away, as media coverage of the issues lopsidedly focusing on the ‘danger’ posed by people with mental health problems. The study of abnormal psychology begins with an understanding of what is ‘abnormal.' Seeking to understand, cope and treat others with abnormal behaviour is as old as society itself.
Population surveys indicate that the public at large believe that people with some mental illnesses are dangerous and that their troubles are self-inflicted. People with mental illnesses are generally regarded as difficult to communicate with. identified three main approaches that may diminish aspects of the public stigma experienced by people with mental illness; they are protest, education, and contact. This has been proven a success in some cases, as Warner (2004) emphasises that neighbourhood education campaigns encourage neighbours to initiate social contact with mentally ill residents. And if continued, we can begin to lift the stigma associated with being mentally ill.
Even amongst professionals, there is a tendency to equate the problem with the person, so that one speaks of "a schizophrenic" rather than "a person with schizophrenia". Within psychiatry, prejudices concerning certain groups of mentally ill people still exist (Lewis & Appleby 1988). Buglass and Dick (1994) questionnaire results demonstrated that individuals who are suffering from a mental illness strongly believe that public education is a priority. People with a mental illness are not the only ones with conditions that are stigmatised. Such prejudice is still widespread within our society, and can generate an additional and unacceptable handicap.
Therefore education, integration, promoting social inclusion and reducing discrimination are the key elements in the transition of changing modern attitudes towards abnormal behaviour. Attitudes towards people suffering from a mental illness have changed significantly. And in most cases for the better, since the days when individuals suffering from psychiatric disorders, or suspected of doing so were put behind doors that were kept permanently locked. Although the topic of mental illness still presents multiple issues relating to stigma, it is important not to forget the transition that has been made. Although there is no longer talk of the ‘lunatic asylum’ and even with the improvements in deinstitutionalization, integration and acceptance of those with a mental illness, society as a whole still have a long way to go.
References
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Buglass, D., and Dick, S. (1994), Not just somewhere to go: A study of users’ Views of a mental health day activites. Edinburgh: Scottish association of mental health, 1994.
Corrigan, P. W., & Penn, D. L. (1999), Lessons from social psychology on discrediting psychiatric stigma. American Psychologist, 54, 765–776.
Hansell, J., & Damour, L. (2005), Abnormal psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
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Lewis, G. & Appleby, L. (1988), Personality disorder: the patient’s psychiatrists dislike. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 44 -49.
Teplin, L. A. (1984), Criminalizing mental disorder: The comparative arrest rate of the mentally ill. American Psychologist, 39, 794–803.
The National Archives. (2002), The Mental Health Act, 1983. Retrieved from http://www.legislation.gov.uk
Rudnick, H, “The Links between Western Psychotherapy and Traditional Healing”. Unpublished D.Litt. et Phil Thesis, 2003, available at http://etd.rau.ac.za/theses/available/etd-05052004-113647/
Warner, R. (2004), Recovery from schizophrenia: Psychiatry and political economy. Hove. East Sussex.
Watson, A., Ottati, V., Corrigan, P., & Heyrman, M. in press Mental illness stigma and police decision making. Community Mental Health Journal, 12, 64-89.