Unit 4-Human lifespan development
Human lifespan development
Unit 4- P1
There are 5 different life stages in life span development these are:
-Infancy
-Childhood
-Adolescence
-Adulthood
-Later Adulthood
I am now going to explain the physical, intellectual, emotional and social needs for the different lifespan developments.
Conception
Human life starts with conception. A fertile woman normally generates one egg cell each month, roughly 2 weeks after her menstrual period.
Conception is a process of becoming pregnant. Most woman ovulate each month, this is when an egg is released by the ovaries.
During the procedure of sexual intercourse the male will ejaculate and sperm will be lead from the testicles through the penis and will enter through the woman's vagina. If a sperm connects to the egg, fertilization may often occur.
Whilst a male ejaculation, there is between 60 million and 500 million that swift there way through like a race. They come across the collar of the uterus within 10 minutes or so. Only around 100 to 200 of the chosen ones will meet the most fertile place.
If the sperm achieves becoming successful and penetrates the egg it will mislay its tail and the head will become larger. The entrances will cause the egg to activate which will result it to enlarge.
-The woman.
The woman's role in conception is vitally important during conception.
All of woman's eggs are already present from the day they are born. From early years of childhood they begin to release eggs. But it has been notified tat a average female around the age of 50 still has around 1000 eggs left.
If fertilization by the sperm occurs it should take place in the Fallopian tube, which then movements occur to the early embryo along towards the tube itself. If the egg fails to fertilize, or the embryo does not implant in the womb, the progesterone levels drop and periods take place. Therefore the whole cycle then starts again.
-The man.
The males' main role during conception is the ejaculation and construction of sperm cells. To fertilize an egg, a man must be able to produce sufficient numbers of swimming (motile) sperm. A small number of these sperm cells will eventually contact the egg, and only one will essentially penetrate and fertilize it.
During the course of puberty, the testes become vigorous and begin to produce sperm. From the males' teens until about the age of 70, a man will naturally produce 5,000 sperm cells every minute. Ejaculation produces semen, which is a combination of two per cent sperm cells and 98 per cent liquid created by the glands in the testes. Production of sperm is beneath the control of FSH and LH, the same hormones that manage the woman's fertility.
Infancy (0-3 years)
Physical development-
When a child is new born also known as a neonate stage, the child is born with various reflexes that the midwife must ensure that the baby is developing acceptably. There are four main different primitive reflexes that are crucial these are:
Moro- is also known as the startle reflex which is during the premature period. This occurs when a baby discovers a loud noise that there reflexes will respond by jilting there head back, places there hands/arms or legs in front of them, cries, then places there body to its original state. It may be observed more in premature birth circumstances after the 28th week of gestation. Moro reflexes lasts until the baby is around 5-6 months old.
Rooting- This reflex occurs when the baby senses touch on the corner of there mouth or cheek, the baby should retaliate by moving there face towards the direction of the stroking and opens its mouth. This reflex helps the baby in search of a feeding bottle or breast.
Grasp- this occurs when the babies' palm of hand is stroked, they should respond by closing his/her fingers and grasping to the object. This reflex lasts only a couple of months and occurs stronger in premature infants. Startle- is the reaction of mind and body to a sudden unexpected stimulus, such as a flash of light, a loud noise (acoustic startle reflex), or a quick movement near the face.
Walking-this is when the baby is held upright with there feet towards the floor, the baby will try to make movements to encourage them to walk more confidently each time.
Motor skills
Gross motor skills include- lifting head, rolling over, balancing, walking, crawling and sitting up. Gross motor kills generally follow a particular pattern. Normally the larger muscles develop more rapidly then the smaller more delicate muscles. T he first thing that develops more rapidly is there eyes.
Fine motor skills- this includes the ability to control small objects, and transmit objects from one hand to the other, and also various hand-eye coordination tasks. An obvious example of this is the use of thumb and forefinger (pincer grasp) to allocate small objects, coloring, cutting, drawing, threading beads or writing. Fine motor development refers to the development of skills involving the smaller muscle groups.
Ambidexterity- is a specialized skill in which there is no control between body symmetries, so tasks requiring fine motor skills can be performed with the left or right extremities. The most frequent example of ambidexterity is the ability to write with the left or right hand, rather than one dominant side.
Pregnancy
Pregnancy starts when a sperm penetrates an egg. During one to one and a half days the single fertilized egg cell begins to divide. After two to three days there are enough cells to develop the fertilized egg into the size of a pin head. The first primster is 0-12 weeks, Second primster is 18-28 weeks and finally the third primster is 29-40 weeks.
Birth & infancy
Birth-
During the remaining 7 months before birth, all the organs continue to develop. During the 20 weeks, the foetus will have reached about half the length of the baby at birth. By 32 weeks the foetus will be around half its weight. The new born baby (neonate) has to take easily digestible food for example the mother's breast milk in order to grow properly.
Babies-
If you are used to babies you should know that they learn how to:
Recognize key people in their lives and respond in different ways.
Recognize and respond to stimuli such as sound, movement or touch.
More and hold themselves up as they grow bigger and stronger
Infancy (0 - 2 years)
Physical development; neonate stage (newborn) infants are born with various reflexes.
-Infancy - more rooting
-Primitive- grasp
-Reflexes 0 startle
-Primitive reflexes.
-Rooting; when baby moves their head towards any touch on cheek, searching their Mothers nipples.
-Grasp; when placing finger in palm of the babies hand, the baby will grab tightly.
-Moro / startle; loud noise, the baby will throw their hands and arm outwards and straighten their legs.
-Walking; baby is held upright with the feet towards the floor, the child will make movements as through trying to walk.
Age at which types of body control begins
Body control
Age
Be able to lift head slightly
0-1 month
Roll over
6 months
Able to pass an object from one hand to the other
6 months
crawl
9-10 months
Stand alone
2 months
Human growth & development
There are two main different skills used during infancy, childhood and later life which are known as the cognitive and linguistic (verbal) skills.
Cognitive-
This involves the factors of:
-memory
-perception
-thinking
Cognitive and social/emotional development refers to the intellectual and psychological maturation of children as their physical development allows them to cooperate more with other individuals and the outer life. There are various theories of these forms of development in children and adolescents. In general this is considered useful for aspects of development in some children. Increasingly, appropriate attachments and nurturing in infancy and early childhood are recognized as critical factors in cognitive growth and emotional health. For example, reading to a child from an early age, presenting academically motivating experiences, and providing warm and developing relationships all have a massive impact on growth in these areas. Intellect is evaluated in young children by observations of language skills, interest, and problem-solving abilities. As the child begins to become more verbal, intellectual functioning becomes easier to consider using a number of dedicated clinical tools. Once the child starts school, it undertakes regular monitoring as part of the intellectual process.
Emotional growth and the achievement of social skills are assessed by examination, the child relates with others in everyday circumstances. When the child obtains speech, the understanding of his/her emotional state becomes much more precise. As with intellectual, emotional operation can be defined more accurately with specialized equipment.
Intellectual development
During the first 18 months it is crucial that infants learn to interact with their essential senses and their muscle action. Firstly, a baby will be dependent on inbuilt patterns for behavior; an example of this is watching, crawling and sucking. A baby will be familiar with this conduct in order to discover a wider variety of items. Babies explore by sucking clothing, toys, fingers ECT. As they do this they are gradually developing an understanding of objects.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a biologist who originally studied mollusks (publishing twenty scientific papers on them by the time he was 21) but transferred into the study of the development of children's understanding, through observing, talking and listening to them while they worked on exercises he set.
Social development
Before an infant is born, much has occurred in terms of social development. Genetic and prenatal biological factors play a big, regulated role in determining later social behavior. After birth, parents and other family associates are the key socializing agents of the preschooler's development.
By studying identical and fraternal twins, as well as adopted siblings, behavioral geneticists have accomplished that genetic factors account for 40 to 70 percent of the changeability in certain characteristics. Genes may contribute directly to children's characteristics and ultimately influence social development through three procedures: passive effects, in which children's genes are associated to the parenting of their biological parents; evocative effects, by which children obtain certain types of behaviors from others; and active effects, through which children seek out environments that best fit their genetic makeups.
Even though it is clear that genetic makeup plays a fundamental role in social development, it is less certain exactly what biological mechanisms account for this influence. Without doubt, many innate factors affecting social behavior are frequently to virtually all infants. For example, infants will cry when troubled, and they actively attend to and seek consideration from caregivers. Infants have dissimilarities, nevertheless, in their genetic makeups, and researchers have looked for ways in which these differences are articulated. Possibly the most extensively studied feature is temperament, which involves several components related to emotional reactivity and regulation. Infants described as having "difficult temperament" are those who are picky, become upset effortlessly and are not easily calmed. Other infants are considered inhibited-they are timid and fearful, become easily upset by intense stimuli, and are also not easily calmed. Infants with "easy temperaments" are outgoing and respond positively to social stimuli (i.e., do not show excessive fear), and are easily calmed when they do turn out to be upset. Temperament is rather steady across time and applies vigorous eliciting effects on parents' and other family members' behaviors toward the child across development..
Parenting practices also play a fundamental role in infants' social development. Specified parenting practices; such as feeding and protecting, are necessary for the infant's survival and are performed by nearly all parents. Parents vary significantly, however, in the degree to which they are nonjudgmental, are warm or rejecting, and are consistent in the course of seeking obedience. A lot of these factors are integrated into three typologies of parenting: authoritative parenting, in which parents are caring and responsive to the child, yet sustain limits on the child's behavior; authoritarian parenting, in which parents place strict rules on the child's behavior, with violation of these limits harshly punished, and in which there is little parental warmth; and permissive parenting, in which parents are warm and nurturing without placing limits on the child's behavior. There is significant evidence that authoritative parenting is associated with positive social development, whereas authoritarian and permissive parenting is associated with negative development.
These parenting styles are influential throughout development, but may be especially important in the formation of attachment security in infancy. Some may say that nearly all infants form an attachment bond to their caregivers, and this bond is evolutionarily adaptive in establishing a balance between exploring the world and seeking safety with the caregiver. There are quite important differences in infants' attachment styles, depending on the past of the caregiver availability and responsiveness. Secure attachment is related to a history of warm and consistent parenting, avoidant attachment to parental negativity and rejection, and resistant attachment to inconsistent parenting. These attachment styles influence social behavior not only with parents, but also with siblings and peers. Securely attached children are the most socially competent with others, while avoidant toddlers are hostile and aggressive, and resistant toddlers are socially inhibited in their interactions with others.
These early influences likely exert influence on further social behavior through the formation of social cognitions, or mental illustrations of the social world. Three classes of social cognitions that guide social behavior: self-efficacy is the perception of one's ability to enact a behavior (e.g., "how well am I able to maintain a conversation with a peer?"); outcome expectations are the expected consequences if one enacts a behavior (e.g., "if I converse with this boy will he want to be my friend?"); and outcome values are the values placed on the expected outcomes (e.g., "do I want him as my friend?"). The behaviors of parents and other family members shape these early social cognitions, which are further shaped by interactions with peers in childhood.
Emotional Development
Infants that are aged roughly around the age of 5-6 months can actually pick up emotions from their careers. While they are growing and developing, they realize that the way they behave can also influence there careers emotions. Around 2 years old, they should be able to recognize the some differences of gender between a male and female.
Childhood
Physical development
From the time of a baby's birth, we eagerly wait for the day when our child will start to roll over, crawl and then walk. Unlike speech and language development, ...
This is a preview of the whole essay
Emotional Development
Infants that are aged roughly around the age of 5-6 months can actually pick up emotions from their careers. While they are growing and developing, they realize that the way they behave can also influence there careers emotions. Around 2 years old, they should be able to recognize the some differences of gender between a male and female.
Childhood
Physical development
From the time of a baby's birth, we eagerly wait for the day when our child will start to roll over, crawl and then walk. Unlike speech and language development, these highlights are at first glance easily determined. Either a child rolls over or it doesn't. Either it crawls or he walks. Yet, what many parents do not know is that within the course of physical development there are separate areas of development and within those areas the manner in which a child is able to accomplish a certain task, can make a big difference in their life.
Once a child learns how to walk, it may be important to examine how that child walks. Does he put one foot in front of the other? What is his gait? Is his pace steady? Once a child learns how to draw with crayons, it may be important to examine the way he draws. How does he hold the crayon? Can he put sufficient pressure on it?
In order to help you answer these questions and better understand the area of physical development, this series will give you basic background information and a developmental checklist to check on your child's development in this area. The area of physical development can be divided into two main areas which are; gross motor development, fine motor development, attention skills, and sensory integration. These are but a few examples of how a child's ability to use the information it receives from its environment is critical to his ability to perform physical tasks.
When a child is having difficulty in the area of physical development, it is essential for parents and professionals that treat a child to consider how his sensory environment affects his development. In this way a parent can determine if a child really "can't" put together that puzzle or if the lights or other sounds in the room are just so disturbing to him that he is unable to do so.
It is also important for parents to understand that sensory integration is a real issue and not just a child being "picky" or "fussy." While to some children a strong smell or bright lights might be annoying, to others, the experience can be unbearable.
Intellectual development
Around the age of 2, children generally begin to walk. By the age of 6, children may be able to sustain a fluent language that a human may sustain. Language develops very quickly between the ages of 2-6 years.
Between the ages of 2-7 years, many children are educated with the ability to count and also be able to have the knowledge of the weight of certain objects.
Children can also use their knowledge for problem solving and making decisions of their own.
Language development
Young babies
New born babies-
Babies listen and respond to your voice and other sounds; they tell their feelings by cooing, gurgling, smiling, and crying.
3-8 months-
Babies play with sounds and they babble to themselves. They use sounds to communicate (smiling the sound of a happy voice, and crying or looking unhappy on hearing an angry voice). Babies can play peek-a-boo. They wave arms and kick feet to show excitement, and they enjoy being read to.
Crawlers and walkers
8-12 months
Babies understand and respond to gestures, facial expressions, and changes in tone of voice. If someone asks, "Where's Mommy?" babies will look for their mother. Babies understand simple words, such as "Ma Ma." Babies put books in their mouths and turn pages in sturdy books.
2-18 months
Babies say first words. They understand a few words and simple directions. They know their own names. They will give you a toy if you ask for it. Babies create long babbling sentences and look at picture books with interest.
Toddlers
8-24 months
Toddlers put two or more words together to make short sentences like "want juice" or "car go." Toddlers learn new words quickly. They can copy adult sounds, words, and motions. Toddlers ask and answer simple questions. They can use crayons and markers for scribbling.
24-36 months
Older toddlers listen to stories being read. They like to play pretend games. They love asking "why" questions. They use "no" and "not" a lot. Toddlers enjoy looking at picture books, turning pages, and naming objects they see. Their scribbling is becoming more like writing.
Preschoolers
3-4 years
Young preschoolers make comments and requests, and tell others what to do. They can talk about things that happened and make up stories. They listen attentively to stories and retell stories to themselves. They enjoy books that tell about real things as well as make-believe. They may revert to toddler behavior when feeling upset or shy. They make shapes such as circles and squares and pretend to write the way they have seen adults write.
4-5 years
Preschoolers know the names and sex of family members and other personal information. They play with words and make up silly words and stories. They are beginning to draw figures that represent people, animals, and objects. They understand that pictures, numbers, words, and letters are symbols of real things and ideas. They "write" as a way to tell stories and offer information. They enjoy "reading" on their own. They may recognize a few words such as their name or words on signs.
5-6 years
Children can recognize and reproduce many shapes, letters, and numbers. They are gaining control over writing and drawing tools. They understand that letter written on a page represent spoken words. They use invented spelling (coz instead of because). They dictate stories for others to write. They enjoy using computers.
Social development & Emotional Development
Socially, young children are still very much dependant on their careers to look after them. They rely on th3eir careers for shelter and safety. This changes as they get older because they develop in to more of an independent individual. But the parent still provides a certain amount of safety and a setting in which to learn social roles.
Emotion and behavior are based on the child's developmental stage and temperament. Every child has an individual temperament, or mood. Some children may be cheerful and adaptable and easily develop regular routines of sleeping, waking, eating, and other daily activities; these children tend to respond positively to new situations. Other children are not very adaptable and may have great irregularities in their routine; these children tend to respond negatively to new situations. Still other children are in between.
At about 9 months of age, infants normally become more anxious about being separated from their parents. Separations at bedtime and at places like child care centers may be difficult and can be marked by temper tantrums. This behavior can last for many months. For many older children, a special blanket or stuffed animal serves at this time as a "transitional object" that acts as a symbol for the absent parent.
At 2 to 3 years of age, children begin to test their limits and do what they have been forbidden to do, simply to see what will happen. The frequent "nos" that children hear from parents reflect the struggle for independence at this age. Although distressing to parents and children, tantrums are normal because they help children express their frustration during a time when they cannot verbalize their feelings well. Parents can help decrease the number of tantrums by not letting their children become overtired or unduly frustrated and by knowing their children's behavior patterns and avoiding situations that are likely to induce tantrums. Rarely, temper tantrums need to be evaluated by a doctor. Some young children have particular difficulty controlling their impulses and need their parents to set stricter limits around which there can be some safety and regularity in their world.
At age 18 months to 2 years, children typically begin to establish gender identity the preschool years, children also acquire a notion of gender role, of what boys and girls typically do. Exploration of the genitals is expected at this age and signals that children are beginning to make a connection between gender and body image.
Between 2 and 3 years of age, children begin to play more interactively with other children. Although they may still be possessive about toys, they may begin to share and even take turns in play. Asserting ownership of toys by saying, "That is mine!" helps establish the sense of self. Although children of this age strive for independence, they still need their parents nearby for security and support. For example, they may walk away from their parents when they feel curious only to later hide behind their parents when they are fearful.
At 3 to 5 years of age, many children become interested in fantasy play and imaginary friends. Fantasy play allows children to safely act out different roles and strong feelings in acceptable ways. Fantasy play also helps children grow socially. They learn to resolve conflicts with parents or other children in ways that will help them vent frustrations and maintain self-esteem. Also at this time, typical childhood fears like that of "the monster in the closet" emerge. These fears are normal.
At 7 to 12 years of age, children work through numerous issues: self-concept, the foundation for which is laid by competency in the classroom; relationships with peers, which are determined by the ability to socialize and fit in well; and family relationships, which are determined in part by the approval children gain from parents and siblings. Although many children seem to place a high value on the peer group, they still look primarily to parents for support and guidance. Siblings can serve as role models and as valuable supports and critics in what can and cannot be done. This period of time is very active for children, who engage in many activities and are eager to explore new activities. At this age, children are eager learners and often respond well to advice about safety, healthy lifestyles, and avoidance of high-risk behaviors.
Moral development
During early childhood, children also grow in their ability to distinguish the difference between moral rules, social norms, and personal choices. By around age 5, children see that moral rules are intended to prevent "really wrong" behavior that could potentially hurt or take away from others. In contrast, social norms are rules about socially-defined behaviors that are wrong or right; however, violating these rules will not hurt other people. For example, Kayla knows that hitting darin is morally wrong, because it will hurt him and make him cry. In contrast, Kayla knows that playing in the mud in a new dress is wrong because it will probably make Grandma mad, but it's not something that her peers will get upset or angry about. Kayla will also be able to identify different personal choices. She'll realize that even though she doesn't like to put ketchup in her macaroni and cheese, it's okay for Frankie to eat this concoction if he likes that taste.
By ages 6 and 7, the ability to differentiate between moral rules, social norms, and personal choices matures, and children can take more circumstances and possibilities into account when thinking about the ramifications of different behavior. For example, Tilly knows that it is not reasonable to copy her friend's test, even if she didn't have time to complete her math problems because she was at dance class (e.g., a moral rule). She also knows that even though it won't hurt anyone, giggling with and tickling her sister during an important meeting with her mum and her boss is inappropriate (e.g., a social norm). Finally, she can think about the consequences of going outside on a chilly day without a jacket, and choose to do so which is against her parents orders.
During the Preoperational stage, young children also start to understand that they have a choice between "right" and "wrong" in a tempting situation. For example, Sarah realizes that when Mom says "no cookies before dinner" and there's a plate of cookies on the table, she can choose whether to grab one or not. Children's ability to understand that they can make right or wrong choices leads to more self-control. Most children will be able to start delaying self-gratification (i.e. hold off doing things that will feel good in the moment) in order to make good choices. This new moral ability can be cultivated through positive discipline. Parents can be sure to highlight children's "good choices" and "bad choices" without labeling the children themselves as "bad" or "good." More information about positive parenting styles can be found in our article on Alternative Discipline (This article is not yet complete.).
While most facets of child development have internal factors (temperament, genetics, and characteristics) and external factors (environment and social influences), morality is largely developed through external factors. Children's environments exert influence on their moral development in many different ways. Adult and peer modeling, family and societal values, religious values and beliefs, and parenting practices can all play a part in shaping morality.
Some moral behaviors are passed on by way of verbal stories or structured lessons, such as religious parables or classroom teaching activities. However, more commonly, moral behavior is learned through direct observation and imitation. Children carefully watch the behavior of their caretakers, other adults, and older children. If they see Uncle Dan being helpful to strangers, they'll be more likely to be helpful to others as well.
Parenting practices and daily discipline have a huge effect on a child's developing sense of morality. Children who receive fair consequences every time they break a rule will learn to connect their choices with consequences. For example, if Lilly gets in trouble only periodically for taking a cookie out of the biscuit jar without permission, Lilly may learn that stealing is sometimes okay. However, if Daisy learns that she will get fair consequences every time she takes a cookie from the biscuit jar without asking she will then understand that stealing is never okay. Furthermore, she will learn a lesson (hopefully) that she will carry forward as she matures into a responsible and moral young woman.
Adolescence
Adolescents are children who are 10 to 20 years of age. They are in a period between childhood and adulthood, called adolescence. This time period is divided into three stages, including early (10 to 13 years of age), middle (14 to 17 years of age), and late (18 to 20 years of age). During this time, your child will go through many changes in his physical, psychological (mental and emotional), and social growth.
Physical development
During the teen years, adolescents experience changes in their physical development at a rate of speed unparalleled since infancy. Physical development includes:
-Rapid gains in height and weight. During a one-year growth spurt, boys and girls can gain an average of 4.1 inches and 3.5 inches in height respectively. This spurt typically occurs two years earlier for girls than for boys. Weight gain results from increased muscle development in boys and body fat in girls.
-Development of secondary sex characteristics. During puberty, changing hormonal levels play a role in activating the development of secondary sex characteristics. These include: growth of pubic hair; menarche (first menstrual period for girls) or penis growth (for boys); voice changes (for boys); growth of underarm hair; facial hair growth (for boys); and increased production of oil, increased sweat gland activity, and the beginning of acne.
-Continued brain development. Recent research suggests that teens' brains are not completely developed until late in adolescence. Specifically, studies suggest that the connections between neurons affecting emotional, physical and mental abilities are incomplete. This could explain why some teens seem to be inconsistent in controlling their emotions, impulses, and judgments.
Intellectual Development
Adolescents learn to think in new ways to understand complex ideas. They learn through selective and divided attention, and better memory. Problem solving skills also improve. They are able to think in a logical way, use sound judgment, and develop abstract thinking. Abstract thinking is the ability to understand and make sense out of symbols or images.
Social development
Family: An adolescent may begin to spend less time with parents and more with friends. He often longs for freedom and starts to detach himself from his family. He begins to depend on himself more and learn responsibility.
Friends: During early adolescence, having close relationships and being accepted into a peer group is very important. A child's actions can be greatly changed by peers or peer pressure. More time spent with friends gives a child more chances to try new things. He may try smoking, drinking alcohol, or sexual activity. By middle adolescence, boys and girls begin as friends which can then lead to a relationship
Community: As a child grows older, his relationships with others also grow. By late adolescence, he learns to think about the needs of others instead of thinking only of himself.
Emotional Development
Early or delayed puberty: The age a child enters puberty depends on many things. Some children develop sexually sooner or later than others. Girls go through puberty earlier than boys. Precocious (early) puberty is when a girl younger than 8 years of age starts to develop sexually. In boys, early puberty may start younger than nine years of age. Delayed puberty is when a girl over 13 years of age or a boy over 14 or 15 years of age has not shown signs of puberty. Early or delayed puberty may be caused by certain medical conditions.
Low self-esteem: Your child may not feel good about himself, especially during early adolescence. Most children focus on their bodies as changes occur, and this may cause poor body image. Your child may worry about how he is growing, and things like acne may be a concern. It is normal for your child to not be happy with how he looks, and to compare himself with his peers.
Mood problems or depression: Mood problems such as depression or anxiety may affect adolescents. These often occur because of changes during puberty. Deep depression is serious and may lead to thoughts or attempts of suicide.
Need for independence: Adolescents seek freedom. They tend to move away from their parents emotionally, and feel comfortable with their peers. This may lead to conflict and problems between you and your child. He may begin to reject your rules and values, and struggle to learn who he is. These problems tend to resolve by late adolescence. As a child grows, he becomes more stable emotionally, learns to rely on himself, and shows more concern for others.
Poor nutrition or low physical activity: Unhealthy eating habits and lack of physical activity can lead to children being underweight, overweight, or at risk of growing overweight. These conditions may lead to medical problems, such as diabetes (high blood sugar), hypertension (high blood pressure), and hyperlipidemia (high blood cholesterol).
Risky behaviors: As your child starts making his own choices, peer pressure may cause poor judgment. He may choose to take unsafe risks. Risky behaviors include trying drugs, alcohol, cigars or tobacco. They also include getting into physical fights or having risky sex. They may decide not to wear seatbelts or helmets, drive while drunk, or carry a weapon. A child is more likely to do these things if he has problems with self-control, family, or the community. Younger adolescents that cannot control their temper often act without thinking about the results of their actions. Children often practice the same bad habits of their parents, such as using drugs or drinking too much alcohol. The school, work, peers, and media (radio and TV) may also direct a child's actions.
Adulthood (18 onwards)
Physical Development
Early Adulthood is a period that many of us reach or reached our peak in physical presentation. It is said that early adulthood starts at about 18 years of age and ends at about 30-40 years of age. For many people the early adulthood stage was a time of developing a sense of self and identity, learning to become independent of the parents, choosing a career, and having a family and kids of your own. During the later years of early adulthood and the beginning years of middle age, people seem to change from a more self indulgent way of life to a generous lifestyle. They start looking at things as "What's best for the family?" As people get older they start seeing the meaning of life as they know it. An understanding of what is important and what is not is define again and again as the individual lives with its family. Many times people start looking at their lives differently and do not like what they see as they get older thus sudden changes often occur.
The examination of middle adulthood begins with a comprehensive look at the physiological changes that take place as men and women move beyond age 40. It is at this time of life that hair begins to turn grey and thin, the skin becomes drier and more wrinkled, and as fat is redistributed, the shape of the body begins to change. These changes, along with those that take place in vision and hearing, trigger a process of self-examination that culminates in transforming one's self-perception.
The impact that lifestyle choices have upon one's overall health and well-being is also discussed, along with insights into why making changes in diet and exercise can be so difficult to accomplish at this stage of life.
Intellectual development
Intellectual abilities are gained when an adult is exercised sufficiently. The older adult's responses may be more time-consuming in comparison to the stage of earlier adulthood. However, if their learning ability has increased this may compensate for this in many work circumstances. When making decisions older adults may be more skilled than adolescence and young adults.
Social development
The importance of romantic relationships and individuation during adulthood is congruent with events common in adolescence; marriage and beginning one's own family. The characteristics of these relationships are based upon previous social learning. Adults often interact within their romantic relationships in a manner similar to how their parents interacted with each other, because as children they observed these interactions. Direct experiences with parents and peers also affect these relationships. For example, securely attached children are more likely to be securely attached with their spouses in adulthood, and childhood friendships based on intimacy and trust are likely to foster these types of relationships with later romantic partners. These past experiences also influence parenting behavior. Thus, the familial environment in which a child is raised is to some extent replicated in the environment these adults provide for their children, though relations with peers and romantic partners modify this continuity.
Emotional development
Emotional development involves a lot of contrast in self esteem and self confidence. This continues throughout the whole stage of adulthood and also affects their views in weather they have confidence to share their life with a partner. This leads to the fact that some adults prefer to live alone due to the fact that taking on a relationship can be a big risk and prefer not to take the risk. People views can change due to their life experiences and affects their relationships with other people. Also an individual's earlier family experience can powerfully have an effect their potential of a partner. Another reason may be that a past partner has passed away and they feel that it may be disloyal to their previous partner if they move on.
Previous studies have concluded that adults usually feel more confident and fulfilled with their days in their 30s and 40s then they did in their earlier adulthood.
Metacognition-mental skills
This is the process where the student takes conscious control of the learning. The learner thinks about how he is thinking in a cognitive sense. For example, the learner is using Metacognition if he realizes that he is having more trouble learning how to complete a fraction problem than a multiplication problem.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition)
Older adulthood (65+)
Physical development
One important thing to remember is that there is a wide variety of individual distinctions in physical development. The effects of specific genes and cellular events make physical reactions more noticeable because more organs and bodily systems are affected.
Nervous system changes include loss of neurons throughout the cerebral cortex, with the motor, visual, and auditory areas most affected. Changes in senses include decline in taste and odour sensitivity, impaired eyesight, and hearing difficulties, which are most common. Immune system function declines in late life making autoimmune responses more likely.
Heightened risks of dietary deficiencies make vitamin-mineral supplements more beneficial in later life. Exercise is a powerful health intervention, even if started in late adulthood.
Mental disabilities include dementia, most notably Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, as well as some depression, anxiety, and feelings of helplessness associated with the diseases.
Outward signs of aging, including white or greying hair, age spots, and wrinkled skin become more noticeable.
Intellectual development
During later adulthood allot become less able to cope in everyday situations then in earlier stages of adulthood. In some circumstances, mental abilities are influenced by physical health and well being. In other words, the more energetic you are the more aware you shall be.
Other older adults can cope more efficiently due to the fact that they may be more health aware and have sentimental exercise with both body and mind are more eligible to develop clearer knowledge and mental abilities than others. Some older adult's seem to make more sensible decisions due to the fact that their ability increases. However, there thinking tends to decrease but this doe's not necessary affect there decisions it life.
Social/emotional development
Individuals in late adulthood have accumulated a lifetime of self-knowledge, which allows them to be more secure of themselves and their identity than at younger ages. Adjustment to retirement is a major step in late adulthood. Adjusting to retirement can be easy and have no adverse effect on life satisfaction. Conversely, retirement can also be stressful, depending on income, activity level, and social network.
Friends play a significant role in life satisfaction by providing companionship, as well as sharing activities. Staying connected to other people promotes successful aging and people do better if they continue to engage with life and maintain close relationships.
An important tool for helping older adults in accepting change is spirituality. A National survey revealed that nearly 76% of Americans age 65 and older say that religion is a very important part of their lives.
Family relationships often grow stronger in late adulthood because, as people age, they put more emphasis on family ties and relationships.
Many stereotypes associate old age with social isolation and loneliness, but it is encouraging to note that, according to a study by Pinquart and Soerensen, only 5% to 15% of older adults report frequent loneliness.
The final stages of life/decline and death
Physical process
There are different circumstances and reasons why people die. One reason is due to the fact that our cells that make up our body have to frequently renew themselves, but unfortunately they can only repeat this certain amount of times. Eventually body cells start to disfunction as they try to renew, and other cells eventually die out, causing sentimental problems.
Social issues
Some people are often worried about dying while others have ways to deal with it. Everyone has to die at some point, so the better others deal with it the better. A lot of peoples religious beliefs affect how they feel for example some believe in heaven, this makes it easier for them because heaven is related to as a better place and peaceful, this often protects them from worrying. Overall, older people tend to deal with it then young adults, maybe because there more prepared or maybe there just ready to let go of life. A lot of people want to make sure they achieve what they want and make sure they leave positively, by also spending valuable time with loved ones and having support.
Meanings of crucial words
Growth-
Growing process: the process of becoming larger and more mature through natural development
Increase: an increase in numbers, size, power, or intensity.
Development-
Process of change: the process of changing and becoming larger, stronger, or more impressive, successful, or advanced, or of causing somebody or something to change in this way
Developmental norms-
Developmental norms are defined as standards by which the progress of a child's development can be measured. For example, the average age at which a child walks, learns to talk, or reaches puberty would be such a standard and would be used to judge whether the child is progressing normally.
Developmental milestones-
Developmental milestones are a set of functional skills or age-specific tasks that most children can do at a certain age range. Your pediatrician uses milestones to help check how your child is developing. Although each milestone has an age level, the actual age when a normally developing child reaches that milestone can very quite a bit. Every child is unique!
Life course-
An individual's life from birth to death as it plays itself out in social & historical contexts.
Maturation-
This is the process of becoming more mature.
Life expectancy-
Life expectancy is the number of years that an individual is expected to live as determined by statistics.
Holistic development
Holistic means treating the whole person and looking at all aspects of their health: Physical, intellectual, language, emotional and social.
Development is holistic in that everything about the child can affect their development. If they are unhappy, frightened, lacking confidence (emotional development) they will not learn as well as if they were happy and confident. If their language is not good (maybe due to not having English as their first language, or due to a physical impairment, or due to other development delays) then this will also affect how they learn. They may not understand what is being said, or may not be able to express their opinion or answer questions. Having language problems can be frustrating, may affect behavior so links back to their emotional development. Same goes for physical. Physical problems in themselves affect development (mobility problems could prevent them from playing with certain toys, using a pencil, could be blind or deaf, disabled etc.); these may link with language (physical impairment affecting speech) and emotional dev (unhappy or frustrated about physical impairment). These then all work together, to affect cognitive development.
P2
Nature vs. Nurture debate
Nature is the biological genes and the nurture is to do with the environment.
Environment
People with minor incomes are more likely to live in more densely populated housing areas. Studies show that these locations may be more demanding to live in because:
* Crime- including burglary and personal attacks
* Poor travel facilities
* More chance of being distracted at night
* Loud noise from neighbours
* Vandalism
* Busy roads and traffic fumes causing pollution
* Litter and rubbish
* Graffiti
Living in traumatic environment may have a negative influence on an individual's self image and self-esteem.
Gender
It was only in 1928 that women were granted equal rights with men to vote in elections. This is due to the fact that woman were considered to have a lower social status then men. Fortunately, women now have equal opportunities in education and employment.
Education
Everyone in our society should go to school and colleges once in their life. However, there is evidence that shows that people with a wealthier location achieve higher more achievable standards. In some circumstances parents would move areas so that they are more located to a school they wish there child attended. On the other hand more wealthier parents often pay for their children to attend a more independent ( private) schools, this is because they believe this will give children better qualifications, skills and friends that help their career in the future.
Life factors
Genetic-
For example Predisposition to certain diseases such as;
-cystic fibroses
-down syndrome
-sickle cell
-anaemia
-trait
-disorders
-Pheny lketonuria
Biological
e.g.:
-foetal alcohol syndrome
-infections during pregnancy
Environmental-
E.g. water and sanitation, pollution, access to leisure/ recreational facilities, access to health & social care services, access to employment and income.
Socio- economic factors
Some negative socio-economic factors
* Low income
* Poorly paid employment
* Poor quality housing
* Low-income neighbourhoods
* Family stress and break up
* Discrimination
* Poorer access to services
* Poorer education
Low income can cause:
* Parents who eel stressed by finance worries
* Less chance of having up to date things such as latest mobile phone
* Overcrowded housing- less room to play or study
* Negative self concept
* Less chance to travel
* Low self-esteem
* Expectations of growing up to be unemployed and unsuccessful
* Poor dietary habits
* Poor housing- more risk of illnesses
* Less access to computers or books to help with study
-The Positive and negative influences of socio economic factors:
Income and expenditure
Positive-
Well of households may be able to afford good quality housing, diet and educational opportunities.
Negative-
Low income households may experience stress and may have poorer quality housing, diet and educational opportunities.
Housing
Positive-
Good housing can provide a comfortable setting to live a healthy life and study.
Negative-
Bad housing can produce stress and can harm physical and mental health. Over crowded housing may make it difficult to study.
Environment
Positive-
A positive local environment may establish a safe setting to play, explore and make friends.
Negative-
Poor neighborhoods may suffer a mixture of poor housing, high rates of crime, employment and family interference.
Education
Positive-
Good opportunities will support the child's intellectual development and career needs. This will make them more eligible to become successful.
Negative-
Lack of good opportunities might mean that adults do not have the skills they need. Adults without basic skills are more likely to be unemployed and unsuccessful.
Access to services
Positive-
Well-off neighborhoods may have good access to quality health and educational services.
Negative-
Poor neighborhoods may have less access to good quality health and education.
Family
Positive-
A happy family setting may provide a wide range of support to help with physical, intellectual, social and emotional development.
Negative-
Low income may form stress for families. Stress within families may affect the health and education of children.
Friends and peer pressure
Positive-
Positive views may guide people to develop self- confidence and effective careers,
Negative-
The beliefs of the people that mix will influence the individual. If the individual mixes with people who have negative views, they may be socialized into beliefs that could limit their opportunities.
Media and culture
Positive-
We are influenced by wider social beliefs- these beliefs may lead people to develop a positive image of there self's.
Negative-
People may develop negative views of themselves that may limit their opportunities because of influences in wider culture.
Gender
Positive-
Some people may not experience disadvantage. Some people may not be discriminated against.
Negative-
Some people experience disadvantage of this. In the past, women didn't have the same opportunities as men.
Discrimination
Positive-
Some groups of individuals may not experience discrimination. Some people may be fortunate to grow up in a non-discriminatory environment.
Negative-
Some groups of individuals such as ethnic minorities, older people and people with disabilities may experience discrimination.
Issues between health and lifestyle factors
Those who have high class are more likely to establish a healthier lifestyle and there dietary habits and amount of exercise is more likely to be healthier than those with poor class. Someone's housing and the location of where they live can have an effect on their education also because they may not be located near a good school/college so therefore they may not have the fees to travel either. The mental state of their house is also an issue if it is in bad conditions such as damp can lead to hygiene issues.
The families beliefs and attitude can also have an effect because dependant on whether the parents/career have good parenting skills or not can play a big role in the families well being.
Some bad areas can have a lot of people who have drinking problems, drug problems ECT, so therefore if they make relationships with these types, this can cause peer pressure and they can be pressured into these negative situations. Some others may be bullies and make them be in situations which affect the individual's health and well being.
Lifestyle
Nutrition and dietary choices-
As your body continues to grow, it is important to take care of it and fuel it with nutritious food so that it may develop to its potential. Whether you are an athlete, musician, avid reader, or video game expert, your body needs healthy food to achieve top performance.
If someone is unemployed and has low income they may subject into an unhealthy diet, this is simply because fast food can be seen as cheaper and quicker to eat then homemade goodness. Whereas, if you are employed and have a high income; you can afford to buy essential foods to achieve a healthy balanced diet.
Exercise-
Physical activity can prevent many major illnesses. Evidence shows that regular exercise can:
* promote healthy blood sugar levels to prevent or control diabetes
* promote bone density to protect against osteoporosis
* reduce the overall risk of cancer
* increase levels of HDL or "good" cholesterol -reducing the risk of developing heart disease
* lower high blood pressure-reducing the risk of developing heart disease
* boost the immune system
* boost self-confidence and help prevent depression
* in combination with a balanced diet, help to maintain a healthy weight
Some people mainly don't exercise enough because in some areas they find it too long to walk to a shop so give up and rely on transport or they don't have enough time to walk, while others with low income don't exercise because they cannot afford to go to the gym and work out. Some may see that they haven't got time to exercise because they need to look after their family.
Stress-
Low income can cause a lot of stress for families, because some may not be able to feed the children or keep them healthy in a positive environment.
Work/ studying can cause stress for a lot of people because parents may not be able to make time for work and there family and do not have time to study.
Child poverty-
Child poverty is rising in Britain for the first time in almost a decade, official figures show that:
- There were 3.8 million children living below the poverty line in 2005/2006, up 200,000 from 3.6 million the year before.
- According to the development for work and pensions, 12.7 million people were living in poverty.
Poverty in the UK-
-Just fewer than 1 in 4 people in the UK (nearly 13 million) live in poverty.
- 1 in 3 children (almost 4 million) lives in poverty in the UK.
5 evil giants
-WANT
-SQUALOR
-DISEASE
-IDLENESS
-IGNORANCE
Inheritable influences
People inherit their physical characteristics from their parents such as:
- Hair (curly, thin, long, hair color, how quick they go grey/ bald)
- Skin ( good complexion/ color)
- Features ( eyes, nose face ETC)
- Personality ( introverted/ extroverted)
M1
Nature vs. nurture debate
The disengagement theory should be allocated at night, and the activity theory should be allocated during the day.
At Night- at night peers can feel lonely, isolated, and feel hidden behind closed doors.
During the day- they should stay active.
* Psychological- menopause and puberty
* Physical- cardiovascular and sensory decline
The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities versus personal experiences in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits.
The view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from "nurture" .This question was once considered to be an appropriate division of individual developmental influences, but since both types of factors are known to play such interacting roles in development, many modern psychologists consider the question naive - representing an outdated state of knowledge.
Numerous generations before us have deliberated on the reasons behind the development of human behavior. There have been many theories formulated to explain why humans behave the way they do. The surviving theories for behavior derive from physiological and sociological explanations. However, the two explanations have not always been compatible with each other. The famous nature vs. nurture debate over human behavior resulted from conflicting views between proponents of the physiological and physical changes.
Historically, some philosophers and theorist have argued that we are born to be the way we are. Other theorists have argued that it is they way we are brought up and influenced by our environment and surroundings that make us the way we are.
Biological influences
The environment inside a mother's womb can have a dramatic influence on the development of a child. If a mother smokes during pregnancy then the nicotine can affect the growth of the foetus.
Physical, linguistic, cognitive and emotional development
Physical features in families clearly demonstrate that genes play a significant role in passing on certain characteristics from one generation to another.
Linguistic development (nurture)
All children are born with the ability to learn language- grammar, vocabulary and sounds. The language or dialects they actually interpret depends on the community they grow up in. The first influence is the immediate family.
People continue to learn and develop language throughout their lives, as they move between different social groups.
Emotional development (nature)
Family life and in particular parental influences affects the emotional state of the sibling.
Deprivation would result in an inability to establish relationships in later life, with a risk of anti-social behavior.
Cognitive development (nature/nurture)
Piaget believed strongly that cognitive development was due to an interaction between the environment, learning and genetic influences.
Environmental influences
The way a child is brought up, the type and method of education, expectations of society and other influences affects the development of personality because weather a child is brought up in a well motivated upbringing can affect the Childs views and beliefs in life. Weather a child is brought up in a well organized education can affect their knowledge of life and the distinction or right and wrong. If a child has a well established upbringing there more likely to have a positive personality and if they have a poor upbringing this can affect their personality negatively.
D1
Nature vs. nurture debate in relation to an individual
During pregnancy nature has a major role such as the genes, environment, friends, income and lifestyle.
Nurture has a major role in your upbringing and this need to be involved; socialization, behavior, manners, respect, discipline and order. If these are not included this will affect the personality of an individual and cause a negative effect. This refers to Maslow;
Positive influences include:
- Good income
- Good housing
- Good environment
- Good education
- Loving family
- Positive friendships
- Access to services
- Media & culture
- No issues of gender
***Need to continue
P3
Two predictable and two unpredictable major life events on the development of an individual
Predictable
Marriage-
This is predictable due to the fact that people often plan to get married and often discuss it. This can have a positive influence on a n individual because this is a event that caused a lot of happiness. This can make someone feel comfortable and boost their self esteem.
Death-
This is predictable because everyone has to pass away, but how someone dies is unpredictable in some cases. When someone dies it affects others to some people find it hard to get over the death of a loved one and can cause a lot of stress and upset.
Unpredictable
Accidents-
This is unpredictable because if someone hurts themselves by accident this means that it shouldn't have happened. This can affect an individual because if they killed someone by accident this can affect them for the rest of their lives. This can affect there self esteem and confidence in many ways.
Divorce-
This is unpredictable due to the fact that no one gets married knowing they are just going to get divorced. When someone gets divorced, there can be many reasons why, for example if a man cheated on his wife, the woman may never be able to trust anyone ever again and can change her views on relationships.
Major life events influences and symptoms
* People experience broad changes in their lives
* Most people experience loss of loved ones
* Many of these events are expected, but may cause stress that lead to illnesses
* Some are expected such as illness and deaths of loved ones
* Symptoms of grieving
* Loss of appetite
* Anxiety
* With drawl
* Depression
* Guilt
* Sleep disturbance/ poor memory
* Panic attacks
* Crying
* Lack of concentration
P4
Disengagement theory
This concerns the psychological processes at work in reduced involvement in the social environment, contending that retirement involves a sharp decline in social interaction, a reduced life space and loss of social esteem and morale. This contrasts with the view that the individual shifts from one set of activities and social roles to others that may be equally or even more satisfying (re-engagement theory). The role of cultural values, attitudes, and mode of life, economic and social factors were relatively neglected in the earliest formulations of the theory.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disengagement theory)
Activity theory
This is another theory that describes the psychosocial aging process. Activity theory emphasizes the importance of ongoing social activity. It suggests that a person's self-concept is related to the roles held by that person i.e. retiring may not be so harmful if the person actively maintains other roles, such as familial roles, recreational roles, volunteer & community roles. To maintain a positive sense of self the person must substitute new roles for those that are lost because of age. And studies show that the type of activity does matter, just as it does with younger people.
Psychosocial Perspectives on Aging
Aging is defined here as the transformation of the human organism after the age of physical maturity so that the probability of survival decreases & it is accompanied by regular transformations in appearance, behaviour, experience & social roles.
Psychosocial aging can be described as a result of the disuse of previously acquired skills, random wear & tear, a change in the ability to adapt due environmental variables, loss of internal & external resources, and genetic influences over the life span.
Social scientists agree that genetics is a major factor in determining the length of human life, although environment plays an important role in modifying the expected life span.
The bottom line of Psychosocial Theory: As people grow older, their behaviour changes, their social interactions change, and the activities in which they engage change.
P5
Physical & psychological changes
Late adulthood is the period of life in every individual that follows the period of his or her life after he/she turns 60 years of age. This period is marked by the process of growing old, resulting in part from the failure of body cells to function normally or to produce new body cells to replace those that are dead or malfunctioning. This in turn results in significant physical, psychological, and cognitive changes, like cardio-vascular, digestive malfunctioning, depression, and impaired memory functioning, and so on. In this article, we shall have a look at the major changes in these categories.
Physical Changes In The late Adulthood:
The physical changes that occur in the bodies of the individuals, in their late adulthood can be divided into main categories;
External Changes- these changes are the outward signs of aging, and are quiet obvious to notice. They consist of changes in hair, skin, posture etc.
Most people's hair becomes distinctly gray and eventually turns white, and it may also thin out.
The skin becomes less elastic, more wrinkled, dry, and thin. The wrinkles are formed partly because of loss of fatty tissue under the skin and partly due to loss
Anxiety Disorders-
Anxiety Disorders is significant conditions in the elderly population. Dementia is broad category covering several diseases, each of which include serious memory loss accompanied by reduction in other mental functions. The blood vessels become less elastic and some become clogged resulting in fewer capillaries, delivering blood to the entire body.
Heart and Lungs-
Due to hardening and shrinking of blood vessels in the body, the heart is forced to work harder, and it is typically unable to compensate fully. The most serious deficits occur in vision and hearing. The anxiety disorders most prevalent in old people include panic disorder, phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, acute stress disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD.
Other Psychological Problems
There are several other psychological challenges faced by the older people, which include mood disorders, schizophrenia, etc.
Internal Changes- as the outward physical signs of aging become increasingly apparent significant changes occur in the internal functioning of the organ systems. Though mood disorders are seen more commonly (4. Also, it could be partially due to changes in posture.
Psychological Changes in the Late Adulthood--
With the advancing age, along with several physical changes, there are also certain psychological changes occurring, in the older people. As the old people become more depressed, their perceived health decreases, their ability to function and sense of mastery, and sense of contentment diminishes.
Menopause (65-55 years)
Ovaries stop producing eggs, less of female oestrogen os produced; this produces physical and physiological changes.
Osteoporosis
Bones become more brittle and likely to fracture; this is common in both men and women. (Physical)
Menstruation
The reproductions of organs shrink. Women complain of hot flushes and night sweats; the body chemistry is altered.
Puberty
- The biological processes of puberty are spread over a long time.
- Due to an increase in the production of hormones, lead to the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
Physical & physiological changes to ageing process
-Physical changes; cardiovascular system, coronary heart disease, Respitory system, degeneration of organs, decline of mobility, arthritis, ECT.
-Psychological changes; loss of confidence and self-esteem.
The key physical appearance changes with age are in hair, skin height, weight, body fat, and body mass.
* Hair- hair loss, graying, rate of growth.
* Skin- sun damaged, Area Specific Skin Changes - The tissues in certain areas of the body may atrophy or show enlargement.
* Height- Changes in the growth of vertebrae, A forward bending of the spine, compression of the disks between the vertebrae causing a loss in trunk length, joint changes in the feet and a flattening of the arches, increased curvature of hips and knees
* Body weight-
Men - body weight increases until the mid-fifties; then declines; accelerating in the late sixties and seventies.
Women - body weight increases until the late sixties; then declines at a rate slower than men.
Cultural Differences - Cultures with higher physical labour do not show this sequence of weight change, which suggests that reduced physical activity and changes in eating patterns may be causes of the change in body weight rather than the aging process.
Cardiovascular system
Differences between cardiovascular function in older and younger persons have been extensively quantified. However, interactions between age, disease, and lifestyle are often overlooked. Whether the high prevalence of cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, and heart failure is due to an aging process, or these disorders merely occur more frequently in elderly persons because of a longer exposure to risk is not yet established.
Respiratory system
The effects of aging on the respiratory system are similar to those that occur in other organs: maximum function gradually declines. Age-related changes in the lungs include decreases in the peak airflow, gas exchange, and vital capacity (the maximum amount of air that can be breathed out following a maximum inhalation); weakening of the respiratory muscles; and a decline in the effectiveness of lung defense mechanisms. In healthy people, these age-related changes seldom lead to symptoms, but they can contribute to an older person's reduced ability to perform vigorous exercise, especially intense aerobic exercise, such as running, biking, and mountain climbing. Obesity also reduces pulmonary function. Additionally, older people are at higher risk of developing pneumonia after bacterial or viral infections.
Nervous system
As people age, the brain and nervous system go through natural changes. The brain and spinal cord lose nerve cells and weight. Nerve cells may begin to transmit messages more slowly than in the past. Waste products may collect in the brain tissue as nerve cells break down, causing plaques and tangles. Lipofuscin (a fatty brown pigment) may also accumulate in nerve tissue.
As nerves break down, the senses may be affected. Reflexes may be reduced or lost, leading to problems with movement and safety. Some slight slowing of thought, memory, and thinking seems to be a normal part of aging.
(http://chealth.canoe.ca/channel_section_details)
Musculo skeletal system
From about age 30, the density of bones begins to diminish in men and women. This loss of bone density accelerates in women after menopause. As a result, bones become more fragile and are more likely to break, especially in old age.
As people age, their joints are affected by changes in cartilage and in connective tissue. The cartilage inside a joint becomes thinner, and components of the cartilage become altered, which may make the joint less resilient and more susceptible to damage. Thus, in some people, the surfaces of the joint do not slide as well over each other as they used to. This process may lead to osteoarthritis. Additionally, joints become stiffer because the connective tissue within ligaments and tendons becomes more rigid and brittle. This change also limits the range of motion of joints.
(www.agingcenter.org)
Age related Illnesses
Elderly people who display "self-neglect" behaviour often suffer from common age-related ailments like depression, heart problems, and dementia, a new study shows.
These disorders make the senior unable to perform the tasks necessary for daily living such as eating and bathing.
Some elderly persons who neglect themselves simply lack access to support services, whereas others either refuse help, or when provided access to services cannot complete the tasks necessary to obtain these services, Dyer and colleagues note in the September issue of the American Journal of Public Health.
(www.iconocast.com)
Psychological changes
Confidence-
Some individuals get more confident and wiser as they get older, this may be due to the fact that that they have had more experience of communication then younger adults. However, it is dependent on their lifestyle and there past and how it has affected them later on in life.
Self-esteem-
Some older adults may have more self knowledge then they had in the past. Some older people may show wisdom in the way they talk to themselves.
Physical & psychological changes due to ageing
Negative perspectives-
Ageism, effects of retirement, loss of family/friends- Disengagement theory.
Retirement, role changes, loss of loved ones, ageism and financial concerns can leave individual feeling lonely, grieving, loss of appetite, anxiety, depressed, ETC.
Positive perspective-
Learning from pleasure; more time for hobbies; cultural variations- activity theory.
Sophie-Lauren Davies