In 1956, a group of educational psychologists Benjamin Bloom developed a hierarchy of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning. On test questions, Bloom found over 95% that students encountered them to think at the lowest level, the recollect of information. So Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain from the simple recollect or recognition of facts, this is the lowest level through progressively more complex and theoretical mental levels to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. Bloom created a taxonomy for categorizing level of concept of questions that commonly occur in educational settings. The following represents intellectual activities:
- Knowledge - Recognize, observe and recall information
Memorize, name, list, label, identify, describe, relate etc
Knowledge of events, places, dates
- Comprehension - Understand information and meaning
Interpret, compare and contrast facts
Summarize describe, express, identify, associate, predict etc
- Application - Use methods, information, theories, concepts in new
situations
Require skills or knowledge to solve problems
Demonstrate, calculate, show, experiment, relate, change, illustrate, discover, modify etc
- Analysis - Observing patterns and identification of components
Acknowledgment of concealed meanings
Separate, clarify, compare, divide, analyse etc
- Synthesis - Using old ideas to create new ideas
Predict, evaluate conclusions
Simplify given facts
Integrate, design, create, substitute, plan, prepare, compose, combine etc
- Evaluation - Contrast and distinguish between ideas
Assess value of theories, presentations
Recognize subjectivity
Verify significance of evidence
Judge, predict, select, explain, discriminate, conclude, evaluate, test, decide etc
Bloom’s taxonomy is significant for training and development because his hierarchy of learning is an understanding the significance of structured learning activities and it developed ideas on evaluation performance at every level of learning. Also it recognised the importance of the learner’s experience of learning and of individualised learning programmes. In addition training design is important, should be progressive and realise objectives and environment in which learning takes place is significant. Many of the facets in good training programme design are supported by Bloom’s work in learning and evaluation. Bloom studied college students but his taxonomy of learning applies to organisational learning. Good practise in designing training programmes follows the features which bloom suggested.
D.A. Kolb suggested that people have preferences for different parts if the learning cycle and this design have been further developed by Peter Honey and Alan Mumford. They designed a ‘Learning Styles Questionnaire’ which is designed to help people recognize how they learn and each of their learning style corresponds to a point in Kolb’s learning style. Honey & Mumford’s preference are listed below:
- Activist – These people likes to get involved in new experiences and
thrives on challenges. More of an active learner prefers interactivity than theory.
- Reflector - These people like to stand back and observe. Prefers to take in
data and information before drawing to a conclusion.
- Theorist - These people like to fit observations and facts into logical
theories. Tends to be analytical, methodical and logical.
- Pragmatist - These people like to try out new ideas to see if they work.
Prefers to get straight on with things and is a good practical decision maker.
Kolb suggested the following five characteristics of effective learning environments:
- Two-way communication between student and teacher
- It is experience base such as dealing with problems, learning from others
- Personal application of new skill, knowledge and attitudes
- The learning environment is relevant to everyone, meeting their needs
- It integrates learning and living: the learning process has two goals
These characteristics helps to learn the specifics of the subject matter and learning about one’s strengths and weaknesses as a learner for instance learning how to learn from experience so learning becomes a part of everyday life. These learning methods are all relevant to training in an organisation as training is just another way of learning.
Kolb’s Learning Cycle
Concrete Experiences (CE)
Abstract Conceptualisation (AC) Reflection and Observation (RO)
Active Experimentation (AE)
Revan’s theory of Action Learning following on from Honey & Mumford’s learning cycle; Revan identified an approach to learning in the workplace. Revan argued that real learning should take place solving real problems, in order to create;
- “lasting behaviour change… and that managers should be placed in”
- “learning sets” with other managers to examine problems and find solutions
Revan’s key principles of action learning is that management development must be based on real work projects; those projects must be defined as having a significant impact on the future success of the enterprise and managers should aim to make real return on the cast of the investment. Additionally, managers must work together and learn from each other and must achieve real action and change. So from the action learning programmes managers learnt about themselves, about their job, about their teams and how to improve things and make changes. In learning organisations managers are encourages to take responsibility for their own development and training needs to be rooted in the everyday reality of what managers do and how they behave.
At many organisations there are health and safety training which is an essential training scheme so that their employees would know the health and safety precautions of the company.
Benefits of Training
Training needs help towards achieving corporate objectives and managing performance. It helps to realising potential, development and retention which are a key issue for knowledge workers and those employing them.
A good training design needs to satisfy objectives, recognise individual differences, develops the individual process of learning, requires regular learner feedback and acknowledges the learning environment.
A.H. Maslow an American psychologist produced the idea of a hierarchy of needs which could explain purposeful behaviour. The base of the model is to reveal the needs and wants of individuals which they will seek to gratify. (J. Martin, Organisational Behaviour, pg 404) wrote: There are five levels in this hierarchy which were the following:
- Psychological needs. These include the basic needs that every individual requires to live and function in general. For example the need for food, water, air and sleep. In an organisational perspective this would include the need for wages.
- Safety needs. This includes the basic security needs in a normal environment for any individual. For example being free from harm and shelter from elements. In an organisational contest this would include job security.
- Social needs. This includes the need for social support that is necessary in life. For example friendship and sense of belonging. In an organisational contest this would include team working.
- Esteem needs. This includes individuals having self-respect, sense of achievement, recognition and reputation. In an organisational context this would include formal recognition by management from useful ideas from employees.
- Self-actualisation needs. This is related to opportunities to realize self-potential. This is the ability to have control over one’s life. In an organisation context this would include the freedom over one’s job to suit personal preferences and conditions.
Additionally Maslow created an idea of motivation to learn which would include intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are internal factors that affect’s a persons decisions for example self-esteem and this would lead to intrinsic satisfaction. Extrinsic factors are external factors that affect a person’s decision; these would not be by choice internally for example pressure from parents or friends, so the decision isn’t made by own choice but affected by outer factors and enables them to motivate.
Overall training is essential as it can have many benefits to an organisation such as bringing out the hidden potential of an individual. With health and safety training it can bring employees to be aware of precautions when doing any task for example don’t sell tobacco or solvents to customers under the age of 16, this was one of the things I learnt while working at the organisation; WHSmith. Training can also improve people’s skills and keep them up-to-date with the IT within the company. It will increase employee’s pace because if they are trained to do particular responsibilities then they will get on with it instead of being uncertain and in hesitation.
Evaluation
To conclude, training for the organisation can provide individual feedback on what they’ve learnt about themselves and others. A method of evaluation is measuring organisation success such as the company targets, individual targets and financial performance. Also comparing with the company’s programmes in terms of cost and impact is significant. (Frances and Roland Bee, Training Needs and Evaluation, pg 262) wrote: “Training is often described as an investment – usually because the term investment is perceived as a more positive term than describing it as a cost”.
A fundamental point is that they way which outdoor training programmes are structured for an organisation is exceptionally important to their success and effectiveness as are for the participants psychologically. Outdoor to training programmes can offer from teambuilding to an appalling occasion for the executives.
The second last stage in the training strategy is the appraisal and evaluation of the training. Training evaluation is carried out for many purposes such as to progress the quality of the training in terms of deliverance, trainer, methods, length of training and objectives and to measure the effectiveness of the overall programme, training methods and instructor. Also to justify the programme so that the benefits outweigh the costs and to validate the role of training for budget purposes.
Evaluation techniques for different learning levels include the following tests, essays, questionnaires, structured exercises, cost-benefit analysis, feedback, interviews and tutor reports.
The UK government thinks it important to train because the UK population is aging and there is a great need being driven by the UK government policy to start to re-skill and develop and expand the new skills base within the UK to meet the needs of the ever-changing global market and economy.
Appendix
SWOT + PEST Analysis
Below is a SWOT & PEST analysis, the example of an organisation used is Tesco’s
Strengths – Tesco’s selling diversity is strength, not just food but pots, pans, clothes
Weaknesses – The perception of the older generation of people as Tesco’s used to be only opened in poor areas, their image isn’t as high-quality as Sainsbury’s
Opportunities – A good opportunity would be to compete in the global market e.g. Europe
Threats - Competition such as Asda, Sainsbury’s
Political - The factors that effect organisations such as tax, currency rates, legislation, inflation
Economic - Factors such as competition, globalisation, recruitment in different countries
Social - What’s going on in society is very important, what’s most popular with consumers etc
Technological – The technology advances are increasing rapidly so there is need for IT training
References
-
Martin, J., 2001, Organizational Behaviour. 2nd Edition. Italy: Thomson Learning
-
Mullins, L.J., 2005, Management and Organisational Behaviour. 7th Edition. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited
-
Bratton, J & Gold, J., 2003, Human Resource Management Theory and Practice. 3rd Edition. Bath. Palgrave Macmillan
-
Torrington, D, Hall, L & Taylor, S, 2002, Human Resource Management 5th Edition. Italy. Pearson Education Limited
-
Beardwell, I, Holden, L & Claydon, T., 2004, Human Resource Management 4th Edition. Haddington. Pearson Education Limited
-
Bee, F & Bee, F., 1994, Training Needs Analysis and Evaluation. Gloucester. Action Publishing Technology Limited